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The Ebola virus comprises a group of pathogenic agents that cause severe and deadly hemorrhagic fevers in humans and other primates. During 2014 and 2015, an Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa—predominantly, the countries of Guinea, Liberia, and…

A plant, Musa textilis, of the banana family that is valuable for its hard fiber (also known as Manila hemp) and native to Borneo and the Philippines. Abaca is one of the strongest of the hard fibers. Commercially, it is known as Manila hemp. The…

One of the major plant hormones that plays an important role in plant growth and development. Abscisic acid (ABA) is ubiquitous in vascular plants; the highest levels are found in young leaves and in developing fruits and seeds. Abscisic acid is…

The process whereby a plant sheds one of its parts. Leaves, flowers, seeds, and fruits are parts commonly abscised. Almost any plant part, such as very small buds and bracts to branches several inches in diameter, and scales or sheets of bark, may…

A distinct phylum of helminths (parasitic worms), commonly known as the spiny- or thorny-headed worms. The phylum Acanthocephala comprises three classes: Archiacanthocephala, Palaeacanthocephala, and Eoacanthocephala (a suggested fourth class,…

A viral disease of humans caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks and compromises the body's immune system. Individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proceed through a spectrum of stages that ultimately…

A genus of gram-negative, immotile and nonspore-forming, oval to rod-shaped, often pleomorphic bacteria which occur as parasites or pathogens in mammals (including humans), birds, and reptiles. They are facultatively aerobic, capable of fermenting…

A heterogeneous collection of bacteria with diverse ecologies and physiologies. The initial definition was based on their branching filamentous cellular morphology during a stage of the growth cycle. The name actinomycete means “ray fungus,” and for…

Habituation to a specific practice, such as drinking alcoholic beverages or using drugs (for example, heroin, cocaine, or amphetamines), and disorders characterized by the chronic use of a drug, alcohol, or similar substance. Addiction and addictive…

One of the four fundamental operations of arithmetic and algebra. The symbol + of addition is thought to be a ligature for “et,” used in a German manuscript of 1456 to denote addition. Its first printed appearance is in Johann Widman's Behennede und…

A type of defective virus particle in which part of the genetic material of papovavirus SV40 is encased within an adenovirus protein coat (capsid). Human adenoviruses require human cells for their propagation; however, papovavirus SV40 can serve as…

A family of double-stranded DNA viruses, collectively known as adenoviruses, which are icosahedrally symmetric, usually found in the respiratory tract of the host species, and often associated with respiratory diseases. Members of the Adenoviridae…

Malfunctions of the paired adrenal glands. The adrenal glands can have congenital defects and can be damaged by infections and destructive tumors. Anencephaly, that is, gross underdevelopment of the brain in fetal life, leads to hypoplasia of the…

A bacterial genus in the family Vibrionaceae comprising oxidase-positive, facultatively anaerobic, monotrichously flagellated gram-negative rods. The mesophilic species are A. hydrophila, A. caviae, and A. sobria; the psychrophilic one is A.…

Any of a group of secondary metabolites produced by the common molds Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus that cause a toxic response in vertebrates when introduced in low concentration by a natural route. The group constitutes a type of mycotoxin.…

A highly fatal insect-borne viral disease of horses and mules, and a mild, subclinical disease in donkeys and zebras. African horse sickness occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, but incursions outside Africa have been documented. Dogs may be affected by…

A major constituent of the cell walls of certain red algae, especially members of the families Gelidiaceae and Gracilariaceae. Extracted for its gelling properties, it is one of three algal polysaccharides of major economic importance, the others…

An age-contingent reduction in physiological function and activity, with a concomitant increase in mortality rate and a diminution in reproductive rate. Aging is the process of becoming older, which is influenced by genetic and environmental…

The repeated and/or excessive use of alcohol (ethanol) that continues despite negative physical, psychiatric, or social consequences. Alcoholism is characterized by consuming alcohol more often, in larger amounts, or over longer periods than…

Any of the deciduous shrubs and trees of the genus Alnus in the birch family (Betulaceae). There are approximately 30 species of alder, with 10 in the United States. Alders are widespread in cool north temperate regions and are also found southward…

The world's most valuable forage legume, Medicago sativa, also known as lucerne, and less often as purple medic, medica, snail clover, median herb, Burgundy hay or clover, and Chilean clover. Alfalfa is often referred to as the queen of forages. It…

The branch of mathematics dealing with the solution of equations. These equations involve unknowns, or variables, along with fixed numbers from a specified system (Fig. 1). The origins of algebra were based on the need to develop equations that…

The study of zero sets of polynomial equations. Examples are the parabola y − x2 = 0, thought of as sitting in the (x, y)-plane, and the locus of all points (t, t2, t3, t4), which is defined by Eqs. (1), 1 in the coordinate space with coordinates w,…

A major constituent (10–47% dry weight) of the cell walls of brown algae. Extracted for its suspending, emulsifying, and gelling properties, it is one of three algal polysaccharides of major economic importance, the others being agar and…

A small order of flowering plants, division Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae), which gives its name to the subclass Alismatidae of the class Liliopsida (monocotyledons). It consists of three families (Alismataceae, Butomaceae, and Limnocharitaceae) and…

A relatively primitive subclass of the class Liliopsida (monocotyledons) of the division Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae), the flowering plants, consisting of 4 orders, 16 families, and less than 500 species. Typically they are aquatic or semiaquatic,…

Altered reactivity in humans and other animals to allergens (substances foreign to the body that trigger an allergic response) induced by exposure through injection, inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. An allergy (or allergic reaction; Fig. 1)…

A disease of the nervous system characterized by a progressive dementia that leads to profound impairment in cognition and behavior. Dementia occurs in a number of brain diseases where the impairment in cognitive abilities represents a decline from…

An alloy of mercury. Practically all metals will form alloys, or amalgams, with mercury, with the notable exception of iron. Amalgams are used as dental materials (see illustration), in the concentration of gold and silver from their ores, and as…

An annual plant (seldom perennial) of the genus Amaranthus (family Amaranthaceae) that is distributed worldwide in warm and humid regions. Amaranth plants are botanically distinguished by their small chaffy flowers (see illustration), which are…

Any of the organic compounds possessing one or more basic amino groups and one or more acidic carboxyl groups. Of the more than 80 amino acids that have been found in living organisms, approximately 20 serve as the building blocks for proteins.…

A stimulating drug that affects the brain and the body. Amphetamine is a stimulant of the central nervous system. Chemically, amphetamine is a racemic mixture of the l and d isomers of α-methyl-β-phenethylamine (see illustration). The l isomer has…

Collectively, members of the class Amphibia are facing massive reductions in total numbers, and the overall biodiversity of amphibians across the globe is under threat. Scientists have determined that global climate change and habitat destruction…

A disorder characterized by the accumulation of an unusual extracellular fibrous protein (amyloid) in the connective tissue of the body. The deposition of amyloid may be widespread, involving major organs and leading to serious clinical…

An infection caused by anaerobic bacteria (organisms that are intolerant of oxygen). Most anaerobic infections are mixed, involving more than one anaerobe and often aerobic or facultative bacteria as well.Bacteria InfectionAnaerobes are prevalent…

Total variation in experimental data is partitioned into components assignable to specific sources by the analysis of variance. This statistical technique is applicable to data for which (1) effects of sources are additive, (2) uncontrolled or…

A branch of mathematics in which algebra is applied to the study of geometry. Because algebraic methods were first systematically applied to geometry in 1637 by the French philosopher-mathematician René Descartes, the subject is also called…

A framework for solving a problem. The analytic hierarchy process is a systematic procedure for representing the elements of any problem. It organizes the basic rationality by breaking down a problem into its smaller constituents and then calls for…

A disease of mammals caused by a specialized group of gram-negative bacteria in the order Rickettsiales, family Anaplasmataceae, genus Anaplasma. Anaplasma is an obligate intracellular parasite that infects erythrocytes (red blood cells) of…

A class of the plant division Bryophyta, containing plants commonly called granite mosses. The class consists of one order and two families, the Andreaeobryaceae and the Andreaeaceae. The large tapered foot and short, massive seta of the…

Synthetic manufactured drugs derived from the male sex hormone testosterone. Androgenic-anabolic steroids, often termed simply as anabolic steroids, are artificially produced testosterone variants. They can provide a number of medical benefits when…

A class of steroid hormones produced in the testes and adrenal cortex that act to regulate masculine secondary sexual characteristics. The major naturally occurring androgens, such as testosterone, are C-19 steroids (that is, they each contain 19…

A medical condition resulting from a reduction in the total quantity of hemoglobin or of red blood cells in the circulation. Anemia is a disorder marked by significant decreases in hemoglobin concentration and in the number of circulating red blood…

The condition of exhibiting no immune response to an antigen. Anergy is a self-tolerance mechanism in which the immune system shows unresponsiveness following an encounter with receptor-recognized antigens. Typically, lymphocytes (the B and T cells…

Loss of sensation with or without loss of consciousness. There are several ways of producing anesthesia, with the choice dependent on the type of surgery and the medical condition and preference of the patient. Each person responds differently to a…

A localized, abnormal arterial dilation usually caused by a weakening of the vessel wall. Aneurysms are commonly found in the abdominal aorta, intracranial arteries, and thoracic aorta; however, they may also involve the femoral, popliteal, splenic,…

The use of live nonhuman animals for scientific research and experimentation. Animal testing has been a cornerstone of biomedical research, having contributed greatly to the understanding of human biology, to the unraveling of the complex underlying…

A small infectious agent that is unable to replicate outside a living animal cell. Unlike other intracellular obligatory parasites (for example, chlamydiae and rickettsiae), animal viruses contain only one kind of nucleic acid, either…

A small class of the plant division Bryophyta, made up of plants commonly called hornworts. There is a single order with six genera. Gametophyte structure The gametophytes are flat thalli, often forming rosettes of uniform thickness (see…

An acute, infectious worldwide zoonotic disease (transmissible to humans) caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis to which most animals, especially grazing herbivores, are susceptible. Anthrax is a serious, though rare, infectious…

The capability that a bacterium acquires to counteract an inhibitory chemical molecule or compound that was formerly effective in killing it or preventing its growth. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria (Fig. 1) is a hot topic in the media and in…

A type of drug that inhibits the combination of histamine with histamine receptors. These drugs are termed either H-1 or H-2 receptor antagonists depending on which type of histamine receptor is involved. H-1 receptor antagonists are used largely…

A chemical substance used to destroy or prevent the growth of infectious microorganisms on or in a human or other animal body. An antiseptic is an antimicrobial compound or drug preparation that inhibits the spread and development of harmful…

An order of flowering plants, division Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae), in the subclass Rosidae of the class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons). The order Apiales (also known as the Umbellales) includes two major families: the Apiaceae, with about 3500…

Correlative inhibition of the growth of lateral (axillary) shoots exerted by the growing apical bud of the plant stem. Competition for growth occurs between plant parts. Strongly growing fruits and branches (organs) act as sinks that divert energy…

Permanently embryonic tissue involved in cell division at the apices of roots and stems, and forming dynamic regions of growth. These apical meri­stems, usually consisting of small, densely cytoplasmic cells, become established during embryo…

Programmed cell death triggered by extracellular signals or genetically determined events and carried out by physiological processes within the cell. Apoptosis is one of the major forms of cell death in multicellular organisms (necrosis is the other…

An inflammation of the vermiform appendix. Acute appendicitis is the most common cause of emergency abdominal surgery, occurring in 5–6% of the population of the United States. Although about 80% of the individuals are between 5 and 35 years of age,…

A narrow, elongated tube closed at one end, extending from the cecum (a blind pocket off the first part of the large intestine). The appendix (see illustration), also known as the vermiform appendix, is found in only a few mammals. The size and…

A deciduous tree, Prunus armeniaca, in the order Rosales that produces a simple fleshy stone fruit. The apricot is thought to be native to China; then it was distributed throughout Asia and Europe, and eventually North America, South America, and…

A number of diseases, including Saint Louis encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, and various forms of equine encephalitis, which are caused by arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses). In their most severe human forms, the diseases collectively termed…