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The American beech (Fagus grandifolia) is native to forest regions east of the Mississippi River and is a key tree species in the United States. In particular, it is very abundant from Ohio to the New England states. The tree is also found in the…

The earliest representatives of modern humans—those belonging to Homo sapiens—evolved from more archaic humans approximately 150,000–300,000 years ago in eastern Africa. During succeeding years, the geographical range of anatomically modern humans…

Life on Earth has been punctuated by a number of catastrophic mass extinctions throughout history. During these events, diverse taxonomic groups collapsed from the relatively rapid and widespread extinction of large numbers of species. Precipitated…

Scientists have identified the earliest known fossil of a modern bird. The fossil remains—comprising an almost-complete skull and a few limb bones embedded in rock—were discovered in a limestone quarry in Belgium. Estimated to be approximately 66.7…

Overwhelming fossil evidence of dinosaurs indicates that these reptiles inhabited terrestrial environments and were initially bipedal (two-footed). Then, as dinosaurs evolved, some became quadrupedal, walking on four legs. Other ancient nondinosaur…

Stellar explosions known as supernovae may be behind several anomalous rises in radiocarbon captured in tree rings over the past 40,000 years, according to a recent study that adds mounting evidence to the hypothesis that supernovae can impact…

Collectively, members of the class Amphibia are facing massive reductions in total numbers, and the overall biodiversity of amphibians across the globe is under threat. Scientists have determined that global climate change and habitat destruction…

It has been a long-held belief that, as a result of hunting habits, early humans were partly or even primarily responsible for the decline and eventual extinction of most of the largest mammalian species that inhabited ancient Africa. These large…

Trees provide substantial benefits to the environment. In addition to improving air quality, reducing stormwater runoff, serving as a wildlife habitat, and sequestering carbon by absorbing carbon dioxide, trees also cool the atmosphere through shade…

At the Woranso-Mille paleontological site in northern Ethiopia, researchers have discovered a 3.8 million-year-old cranium (skull) belonging to a primitive hominin known as Australopithecus anamensis. Initially unearthed in 2016, but not reported…

Photosynthesis is a key natural process utilized by plants and is necessary for proper plant growth. Specifically, photosynthesis uses light to manufacture chemical compounds, including organic compounds—primarily carbohydrates—that are derived from…

More apples are consumed worldwide than any other temperate-zone tree fruit. Apples are eaten fresh, processed into jellies and preserves, cooked in pies and pastries, and made into sauces. Therefore, the cultivation of the trees (genus Malus) that…

The evolutionary transition of certain dinosaurs into modern birds has long been an active area of paleontological research. Because the members of the class Aves are living representatives of theropod dinosaurs, paleontologists have sought fossil…

A newly identified reptilian fossil has pushed back the phylogenetic (evolutionary) family tree of Squamata [the dominant order of living reptiles, comprising lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians (mostly limbless lizards that resemble worms)] by 75…

Scientists have long thought that dinosaur eggs were white in color and that the evolution of colored eggs in birds was strictly an avian innovation that occurred after the demise of the nonavian dinosaurs. However, technical advancements in the…

By July 6, 2018, beaches on the eastern coast of St. Vincent—an island located in the southeastern Caribbean Sea (Lesser Antilles)—were covered nearly one-meter deep with rotting brown algae (seaweed), known as Sargassum, posing multiple problems…

To better understand the nutritional effects (health benefits), chemical composition, growing conditions, and shelf life of microgreens, a team of researchers reviewed the science behind them in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry…

Destructive blooms of Karenia brevis, a dinoflagellate species of algae that imparts a red color to ocean waters when the microorganisms grow and accumulate to unusually high quantities, are causing unprecedented environmental and ecosystem damage…

Recent excavations in Asia unearthed a pristine, three-dimensional fossil of a tiny dinosaur tail with preserved feathers and soft tissues (presumably skin). In 2016, investigators in northern Myanmar (Burma) recovered a piece of Cretaceous-era…

Bananas (Musa genus) are one of the world's most valuable and popular primary agricultural commodities. However, the most prevalent naturally occurring bananas, that is, those of the Cavendish variety, are being severely decimated by Panama disease…

Through study of the fossil record, paleontologists can frequently identify when an ancient species or taxon (a grouping of related organisms) first emerged in evolutionary history. (Paleontologists often prefer the term taxon over species because…

Tiny granules found within the pollen sacs of numerous species of flowers may play a key role in allergic reactions associated with pollen. Measuring less than 4 micrometers (μm) in diameter (most being less than 1 μm), these granules are called…

Many trees enjoy extremely long lives in comparison to humans and other animals. Yet one group of trees, the bristlecone pines, stands out as the most ancient of all, with individual trees that commonly live for thousands of years, including one…

An artificial leaf is a solar cell that uses water and an electrical current generated from sunlight to produce hydrogen (for fuel) and oxygen. It is currently in development at laboratories worldwide. If successful, the artificial leaf could serve…

Conifers are predominantly cone-bearing, evergreen trees and shrubs belonging to the order Pinales, as well as a small number of extinct orders, in the class Pinopsida of the division Pinophyta (Coniferophyta). All are woody plants, and they are…

In the Rising Star cave system in South Africa, located about 48 kilometers (30 miles) north of Johannesburg, paleoanthropologists have unearthed an extensive collection of more than 1550 skeletal elements from at least 15 individuals that have…

In the Afar region of Ethiopia, paleoanthropologists unearthed a 2.8 million-year-old jawbone (mandible) that was provisionally assigned to the genus Homo [the genus of human beings, including modern humans (Homo sapiens) and other extinct species].…

The biflagellate water molds, downy mildews, and other microorganisms classified as members of the Oomycota (also termed Oomycetes) have long puzzled taxonomists. Previously, investigators thought them to constitute a group within the true fungi…

Woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) once inhabited most of Europe and the northern halves of North America and Asia during the Late Pleistocene Epoch. Dating back to approximately 400,000 years ago, these members of the mammalian order…

The olive tree (Olea europaea) is an ancient cultivated plant that was originally domesticated by early civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean regions. Today, the major olive-producing countries are Spain, Italy, Greece, and Turkey, which…

One of history’s worst agricultural catastrophes was the great Irish potato famine of 1845–1849, which killed more than a million people in Ireland, forced the emigration of 1.5 million others, and fueled resentments between the Catholic and…

The evolutionary ancestry of the modern human race became even more complicated in 2012 with the results of studies on DNA extracted from bits of 50,000-year-old bone from Siberia. The analysis confirmed that an archaic species of people called…

Dogs belong to the mammalian family Canidae. Members of this carnivorous group comprise domestic dogs, wolves, wild dogs, coyotes, dingoes, foxes, and jackals. Canis lupus familiaris (also referred to as Canis familiaris) is the species name given…

The origin, evolutionary history, and extinction of the Neandertals (Homo neanderthalensis, a group of late archaic humans from Europe, southwest Asia, and central Asia that immediately preceded the first modern humans in those regions), as well as…

Extinction can be defined as the disappearance and death of a type of organism or group of organisms, particularly at the species level. Mass extinctions of numerous species have occurred throughout the history of life on Earth, and they continue to…

The historical use of medicinal mushrooms in the traditional therapies of East Asia has been documented for millennia, and biomedical science is now seeking to validate this ancient mycological knowledge through more rigorous evaluation and testing…

Tannins (tannic acids) are naturally occurring complex chemicals found in plants. These proanthocyanidin polyphenols are particularly prevalent in a variety of vascular plants, including fruits (especially grapes), teas, legumes, and grasses.…