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The use of live nonhuman animals for scientific research and experimentation. Animal testing has been a cornerstone of biomedical research, having contributed greatly to the understanding of human biology, to the unraveling of the complex underlying…

A discipline concerned with the application of ethics to biological problems, especially in the field of medicine. Bioethics is a broad term that encompasses the environmental, ethical, legal, and social implications of agriculture, life sciences,…

An active and intentional act or practice of putting to death, in a relatively painless way, of persons suffering severely from medical conditions that are incurable, untreatable, or irreversible. Euthanasia is an act by a person, usually a…

An organism that has had its genetic material manipulated or altered in a laboratory setting through the use of genetic or genomic engineering techniques. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are microorganisms, plants, or animals that have been…

The accumulated body of scientific and technical writing published to serve the informational needs of, primarily, scientists, engineers, and research workers, and, to the extent that it can be understood, the general public. This vast literature is…

The Nobel Prizes for 2019 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to John B. Goodenough of the University of Texas at Austin, United States; M. Stanley Whittingham of Binghamton University,…

The subfield of philosophy that treats fundamental questions pertaining to science. The philosophy of science explores the fundamental principles, purposes, methodologies, implications, and reliability of the human enterprise known as science. It…

The study of nature and natural phenomena in which facts are observed and classified, and, often, quantitative laws are formulated and verified; involves the application of logical reasoning and data analysis to natural phenomena. Originally, the…

The Nobel Prizes for 2018 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The prize in chemistry was awarded to three scientists. Half of the prize went to Frances H. Arnold from the California Institute of Technology in…

The Nobel Prizes for 2017 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Jacques Dubochet of the University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Joachim Frank of Columbia University, New York, United…