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Genetically modified organism (GMO)

An organism that has had its genetic material manipulated or altered in a laboratory setting through the use of genetic or genomic engineering techniques. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are microorganisms, plants, or animals that have been…

Article

Model theory

The body of knowledge that concerns the fundamental nature, function, development, and use of formal models in science and technology. In its most general sense, a model is a proxy. A model is one entity used to represent some other entity for some…

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Physical theory

An attempt to explain a certain class of physical phenomena by deducing them as necessary consequences of other phenomena regarded as more primitive or fundamental and less in need of explanation. When formulating a physical theory, any fundamental…

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Animal testing

The use of live nonhuman animals for scientific research and experimentation. Animal testing has been a cornerstone of biomedical research, having contributed greatly to the understanding of human biology, to the unraveling of the complex underlying…

Article

Bioethics

A discipline concerned with the application of ethics to biological problems, especially in the field of medicine. Bioethics is a broad term that encompasses the environmental, ethical, legal, and social implications of agriculture, life sciences,…

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Euthanasia

An active and intentional act or practice of putting to death, in a relatively painless way, of persons suffering severely from medical conditions that are incurable, untreatable, or irreversible. Euthanasia is an act by a person, usually a…

Article

Literature of science and technology

The accumulated body of scientific and technical writing published to serve the informational needs of, primarily, scientists, engineers, and research workers, and, to the extent that it can be understood, the general public. This vast literature is…

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Nobel Prizes for 2019

The Nobel Prizes for 2019 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to John B. Goodenough of the University of Texas at Austin, United States; M. Stanley Whittingham of Binghamton University,…

Article

Philosophy of science

The subfield of philosophy that treats fundamental questions pertaining to science. The philosophy of science explores the fundamental principles, purposes, methodologies, implications, and reliability of the human enterprise known as science. It…

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Science

The study of nature and natural phenomena in which facts are observed and classified, and, often, quantitative laws are formulated and verified; involves the application of logical reasoning and data analysis to natural phenomena. Originally, the…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2018

The Nobel Prizes for 2018 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The prize in chemistry was awarded to three scientists. Half of the prize went to Frances H. Arnold from the California Institute of Technology in…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2017

The Nobel Prizes for 2017 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Jacques Dubochet of the University of Lausanne, Switzerland; Joachim Frank of Columbia University, New York, United…

Article

Scientific methods

Strategies or logical practices, often with iterative steps, used in scientific research. The process of doing science (Fig. 1) is not a "cookbook" set of rules. However, a valid scientific investigation typically involves systematic collection of…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2016

The Nobel Prizes for 2016 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The prize in chemistry was awarded jointly to Jean-Pierre Sauvage of the University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart of…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2015

The Nobel Prizes for 2015 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded jointly to Tomas Lindahl of the Francis Crick Institute, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom, Paul Modrich of the Howard Hughes…

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Empirical method

The empirical method is not sharply defined. It is generally characterized by the collection of a large amount of data before much speculation as to their significance, or without much idea of what to expect, and is to be contrasted with more…

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Experiment

The test of a hypothesis under controlled conditions. The experiment is one of the distinctive tools of the scientist. It enables the scientist to put questions to nature and receive answers. These answers lead to new problems whose solutions…

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Hypothesis

A tentative supposition with regard to an unknown state of affairs, the truth of which is thereupon subject to investigation by any available method, either by logical deduction of consequences which may be checked against what is known, or by…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2013

The Nobel Prizes for 2013 included the following awards for scientific disciplines.Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded jointly to Martin Karplus of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, Michael Levitt of Stanford…

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Nobel Prizes for 2014

The Nobel Prizes for 2014 included the following awards for scientific disciplines.Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Erik Betzig of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, Virginia, Stefan W. Hell of the Max Planck Institute for…

Article

Physical law

A highly ambiguous term that designates four different concepts: (1) objective pattern (or natural regularity), (2) formula purporting to represent an objective pattern, (3) law-based rule (or uniform procedure), and (4) principle concerning any of…

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Physical science

The fields of inquiry to which the general designation science may be appropriately applied are broadly divided into social science and natural science. The latter is further subdivided into biology and physical science. Physical science is…

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Postulate

In a formal deductive system, a proposition accepted without proof, from which other propositions are deduced by the conventional methods of formal logic. There is a certain arbitrariness as to which propositions are to be treated as postulates,…

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Theorem

A proposition arrived at by the methods of logical deduction from a set of basic postulates or axioms accepted as primitive and therefore not subject to deductive proof. So long as a theorem is part of a purely formal system, it is not meaningful to…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2012

The Nobel Prizes for 2012 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Robert J. Lefkowitz of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina,…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2011

The Nobel prizes for 2011 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Dan Shechtman of the Technion (Israel Institute of Technology) for the discovery of quasicrystals. Quasicrystals were…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 1996

The Nobel Prizes for 1996 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Physics Professors David M. Lee and Robert C. Richardson of Cornell University and Professor Douglas M. Osheroff of Stanford University were awarded the prize for…

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Nobel Prizes for 1997

The Nobel Prizes for 1997 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Physics Professor Steven Chu at Stanford University in California, William D. Phillips at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Gaithersburg,…

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Nobel Prizes for 1998

The Nobel Prizes for 1998 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry Walter Kohn received one-half of the prize for his development of the density-functional theory. John A. Pople received the other half for his development…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 1999

The Nobel Prizes for 1999 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry Ahmed H. Zewail received the prize for his development of femtochemistry. He is professor of chemistry and physics at the California Institute of…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2000

The Nobel Prizes for 2000 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa for the discovery and development of electrically conductive…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2001

The Nobel Prizes for 2001 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded in two parts for the development of catalytic asymmetric synthesis, with William S. Knowles and Ryoji Noyori sharing half…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2002

The Nobel Prizes for 2002 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded for the development of methods for analyzing and identifying large biological molecules, specifically proteins. John B.…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2003

The Nobel Prizes for 2003 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded for the discovery of the structure and function of proteins, known as channels, which span cell membranes and selectively…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2004

The Nobel Prizes for 2004 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Aaron Ciechanover and Avram Hershko, both of Technion (Israel Institute of Technology), Haifa, and Irwin Rose of the…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2005

The Nobel Prizes for 2005 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Yves Chauvin of the Institut Français du Pétrole, Robert H. Grubbs of the California Institute of Technology, and…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2006

The Nobel Prizes for 2006 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Roger D. Kornberg of Stanford University for determining the molecular basis of transcription in eukaryotic cells, a…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2007

The Nobel Prizes for 2007 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Gerhard Ertl of Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society),…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2008

The Nobel Prizes for 2008 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded jointly to Osamu Shimomura (Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole and Boston University Medical School, both in…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2009

The Nobel Prizes for 2009 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Ada E. Yonath of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel, Thomas A. Steitz of Yale University, and…

Article

Nobel Prizes for 2010

The Nobel Prizes for 2010 included the following awards for scientific disciplines. Chemistry The chemistry prize was awarded to Richard F. Heck of the University of Delaware, Ei-ichi Negishi of Purdue University, and Akira Suzuki of Hokkaido…

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from article Philosophy of science

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Pulpit Rock Park in Colorado Springs, Colorado, photographed with camera equipment sensitive to infrared wavelengths of light outside of the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can perceive. The "invisible" light is rendered…

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from article Philosophy of science

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Bust of the Greek polymath Aristotle. (Credit: Photos.com/Getty Images)

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from article Model theory

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Conceptual model of a system.

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from article Model theory

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Model of a regional population system.

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from article Animal testing

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Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species in animal testing and research. (Credit: Dolores Bonaparte)

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