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Phase diagram for water, showing gas, liquid, and several solid (ice) phases; triple points at A, B, and C. The pressure scale changes at 101 kilopascals from logarithmic scale at low pressure to linear at high pressure.

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Ablative indirect drive and ablative direct drive. (a) In laser-illuminated, ablative indirect drive, the ICF target consists of a cylindrical hohlraum (hollow room) in which laser light is injected through the two holes in the end caps and heats…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

X-ray images with a framing camera (developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) from a directly driven inertial confinement fusion capsule at the University of Rochester's Omega Facility. The camera has 80-ps exposure time and 55-ps time…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Deuterium–tritium fuel ion temperature and density at ignition, plotted against normalized radius, for a typical high-gain capsule.

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). Its driver is the world's largest laser. The 1.8 MJ of ultraviolet light (351-nm wavelength from frequency-tripled neodymium:glass laser light) is generated with…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Progress toward ignition on NIF is illustrated by the plot of no-burn D–T equivalent yield in number of neutrons versus the value of ρr inferred from the energy lost by fusion neutrons during passage out of the compressed fuel. These experiments…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

View of the combined Z Machine and Z-Beamlet laser facility (lower left) with exploded view of the cross section of the Z Machine (upper left). Both will be used to drive the MagLIF capsule (right) at Sandia National Laboratories. The 10-kJ…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Computed capsule gains (energy yield divided by absorbed energy) from 1D simulations of the principal (radial) dynamics for ablative direct drive of a perfect capsule, which is irradiated by either 248-nm laser light or 351-nm laser light with…

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Electra, an ∼500 J/pulse, electron-beam pumped KrF laser at the Naval Research Laboratory. It has achieved 90,000 shots in a continuous run and 330,000 shots in 8 days at 2.5–5 Hz.

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from article Inertial confinement fusion

Conceptual design of the X-target. (Credit: Heavy Ion Fusion Science Virtual National Laboratory)

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from article Renner-Teller effect

Bending potential function V for a degenerate electronic state of a linear molecule as a function of displacement r, and for three values (0, 0.5, 1.0) of the Renner parameter ε. In the absence of Renner-Teller splitting (ε = 0) there is a single…

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from article Capacitance

Parallel-plate capacitor P1, P2 with guard ring GG. Spacing between guard ring and plate is exaggerated. (a) Cross section with all parts of capacitor at ground potential. (b) Top view showing plate P1 surrounded by guard ring. (c) Cross section of…

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from article Capacitance

Variable air capacitor.

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from article Capacitance

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from article Capacitance

Wound-roll construction of plastic film and paper capacitors.

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from article Capacitance

Ceramic capacitor constructed in chip form, showing cutaway of finished chip.

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from article Capacitance

Tantalum electrolytic capacitor showing cross section. (General Electric Co.)

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from article Capacitance

Construction and polarity markings of aluminum electrolytic capacitor. (a) Cross section. (b Polarization markings for tabular capacitor with axial leads. (c) Polarization markings for capacitor with radial leads. (After A. Mottershead, Electricity…

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from article Capacitance

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from article Curie temperature

Variation of spontaneous magnetization of a ferromagnetic material with temperature.

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from article Curie temperature

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from article Reactance

Circuit with a resistor and capacitor in parallel.

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from article Open channel

Types of open-channel flow. The inverted triangles denote the free surface of the flow. (a) Unsteady flow. (b) Steady, uniform flow. (c) Steady, gradually varied flow (GVF) and steady, rapidly varied flow (RVF). (After T. W. Sturm, Open Channel…

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from article Integrated optics

Optical waveguide. (a) Optical intensity of the fundamental guided mode. (b) Ray picture of the guided mode.

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from article Integrated optics

Two-dimensional transverse waveguiding. (a) Rib waveguide. (b) Diffused channel guide.

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from article Integrated optics

Prism input coupling and grating output coupling. With the ray directions reversed, the grating acts as an input coupler and the prism as an output coupler.

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from article Integrated optics

A “4 by 4” directional coupler switch.

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from article Integrated optics

Top view of an integrated optics spectrum analyzer.

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from article Integrated optics

A wavelength-division-multiplexed transmitter chip. DFB indicates distributed feedback.

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from article Muffler

Mufflers. (a) Reactive muffler for automobile exhaust system. (b) Dissipative muffler for industrial application.

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from article Muffler

Simple muffler elements, and their representative transmission losses. (a) Helmholtz resonator. (b) Side-branch resonator. (c) Expansion chamber. (d) Expansion chamber with dissipative material.

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from article Aharonov-Bohm effect

Aharonov and Bohm's proposed experiments to demonstrate the effects of electromagnetic potentials in electron interference phenomena. (a) Experiment to verify the effect of a vector potential. (b) Experiment to demonstrate the effect of a scalar…

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from article Aharonov-Bohm effect

Very small ring fabricated from a gold film 38 nm thick. Lines forming the ring are 40 nm wide, and the average diameter is 0.82 μm. The electrical resistance is measured by applying a constant current through two of the leads connecting the sample…

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from article Aharonov-Bohm effect

Resistance oscillations observed in the ring of Fig. 1 at temperature of 0.01 K over a very small magnetic field range. Vertical scale measures deviation ΔR of resistance from its mean value R. The period of the h/e Aharonov-Bohm oscillations in…

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from article Optical fibers

Types of optical fiber designs. (a) Multimode, stepped-refractive-index-profile. (b) Multimode, graded-index-profile. (c) Single-mode, stepped-index. Graded-index is possible. (d) Microstructured optical fiber. (e) Hollow-core fiber for high-power…

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from article Optical fibers

Loss mechanisms in silica-based fibers.

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from article Intermediate vector boson

Observation of the W particle in the UA1 data from the electron transverse energy distribution. The solid curve is the expected distribution for the decay, W → eν, while the broken curve is the distribution expected for the decay of a different…

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from article Intermediate vector boson

Rates from the L3 experiment at LEP for the process e+e− → Z 0 as a function of total center-of-mass energy of the electron plus positron. The rate is measured as a total cross section. (After O. Adriani et al., Results from the L3 Experiment at…

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from article Automatic landing system

Schematic of radar-beam system for aircraft-carrier and shore applications.

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from article Electromotive force (cells)

Cross-section diagram of Daniell cell. (After W. J. Moore, Physical Chemistry, 5th ed., Longman, 1974)

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from article Altimeter

Schematic arrangement of sensitive pressure altimeter. 1 ft = 0.3 m.

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from article Altimeter

Radar altimeter principles. (a) Ideal return power distribution, which would be observed if the signal came only from the closest point to the radar. (b) Typical distribution of average returned power as a function of distance from the radar. (c)…

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from article Altimeter

Block diagrams of typical radar altimeters. (a) Automatic pulse altimeter. Control, tracking, and output circuits may all be digital. (b) Servo-adjusted-sweep FM altimeter.

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from article Radiative transfer

Beam of light illuminating a slab of gas of thickness L, shown in cross section.

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from article Radiative transfer

Absorption of radiation in a slab of gas. The solid circles show the amount of radiation reaching each interface if each layer absorbs 50% of the radiation reaching it. The open circles are for 10 layers, each absorbing 25% of the radiation. The…

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from article Radiative transfer

Representative scattering phase functions, representing the probability that a photon will be scattered through an angle Θ.

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from article Magnetism

Iron filings between and around bar magnets sketch out the magnetic field lines emanating from the objects’ opposite poles (N = North, S = South). (Credit: Alchemy/Alamy)

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from article Magnetism

A magnetic field line diagram for a magnetic dipole, with arrows tracing from the north pole (N) to the south pole (S).

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from article MXenes

Crystal structures of side views of MXene blocks: (a) M2XTz, (b) M3X2Tz, (c) M4X3Tz.

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from article MXenes

Typical scanning electron microscope micrographs of (a) Ti3AlC2 MAX phase and (b) Ti3C2Tz MLs. (c) Transmission electron microscope micrographs of delaminated single Ti3C2Tz layers.

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from article MXenes

Side view of o-MXenes with chemical formulas (a) M′2M′′2X3Tz, and (b) M′2M′′X2Tz. The M′ and M′′ transition metals are denoted by two different blue spheres and carbon by black.

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from article MXenes

i-MXene (a) side views and (b) top view. Here both M elements are present after etching. (c) Same as (a) but with minority element etched together with Al layers (not shown). (d) Top view of (c) showing ordered divacancies in the basal plane. The…

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from article MXenes

Scanning electron microscope micrograph of (a) vacuum-filtered film of MXene flakes and (b) crumpled MXene flakes formed after aggregation of MXene colloids at high or low pH. Scale bar = 2 μm.

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from article Paramagnetism

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from article Paramagnetism

Energy levels in Van Vleck paramagnetism.

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from article Paramagnetism

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from article Kondo effect

Temperature dependence of a typical Kondo alloy compared with an ordinary metal for four experimentally measurable quantities: (a) electrical resistivity ρ, (b) inverse magnetic susceptibility χ-1, (c) thermodynamic heat capacity Cv, and (d)…

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from article Electron configuration

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from article Electron configuration

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from article Neutron spectrometry

Neutron total cross section of 231Pa + neutron. The variation in sizes of the resonances and the nonuniform spacing of resonances are apparent.

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from article Neutron spectrometry

Energy-level diagram for the product nucleus AZ*. The asterisk emphasizes that the product nucleus is in an excited state.

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from article Neutron spectrometry

Experimental neutron total cross section of sulfur compared to a theoretical fit. The fit does not include contributions from small resonances and minor isotopes of sulfur. The asymmetry of some resonances arises from the interference of resonance…

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from article Neutron spectrometry

Energy diagram of the target nuclide showing excitation of levels by the inelastic scattering of MeV neutrons.

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from article Directional coupler

Four-port directional waveguide coupler.

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from article Directional coupler

Two-hole directional coupler.

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from article Directional coupler

Single-mode fiber-optic directional coupler.

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from article Helmholtz resonator

Helmholtz resonator. Symbols are explained in text.

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from article Lawson criterion

Typical plot of minimum value of nτ necessary for net release of energy versus ion kinetic temperature in a mixture containing equal amounts of deuterium and tritium. (After J. M. Hollander, ed., Annu. Rev. Energy, 1:213–255, 1976)

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from article Intermolecular forces

Schematic diagram of intermolecular interaction. (a) There is negligible interaction between atoms that are 1 nm apart. (b) For atoms separated by about 0.8 nm or less, attractive dispersion forces result from correlated fluctuations of the electron…

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from article Radiation damage to materials

The five principal mechanisms of radiation damage are ionization, vacancies, interstitials, impurity atoms, and thermal spikes. Diagram shows how a neutron might give rise to each in copper. Grid-line intersections are equilibrium positions for…

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from article Radiation damage to materials

Sensitivity of engineering materials to radiation. Levels are approximate and subject to variation. Changes are in most cases at least 10%. (After O. Sisman and J. C. Wilson, Nucleonics, 14:58–65, 1956)

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from article Nuclear reaction

Formation of the compound nucleus 14N after capture of the deuteron by 12C. Four exit channels are indicated.

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from article Nuclear reaction

A (d, p) transfer reaction.

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from article Oscilloscope

Four-channel 150-MHz analog oscilloscope. (Credit: Tektronix)

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from article Oscilloscope

Sweep generator waveforms. (a) Single waveform, showing instant of trigger (T). (b) Dual time base in set-up mode: sweep by A, intensified by B. (c) Dual time base in delayed display mode: scan delayed by A, sweep by B.

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from article Oscilloscope

High-speed general-purpose digitizing oscilloscope. (Credit: Tektronix)

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from article Adiabatic demagnetization

Entropy–temperature diagram of a paramagnetic substance, showing process of adiabatic demagnetization.

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from article Adiabatic demagnetization

Low-temperature part of two-stage nuclear refrigerator with superconducting magnets. Demagnetization of the second stage from an initial magnetic field of 9 teslas gave measured electronic temperatures of 10–12 μK. (After F. Pobell, Matter and…

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from article Reciprocity principle

Antenna system.

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from article Reciprocity principle

Two-mesh network.

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from article Reciprocity principle

Charged conducting bodies.

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from article Reciprocity principle

Four-terminal, black-box network.

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from article Cotton effect

Behavior of the ORD and CD curves in the vicinity of an absorption band at wavelength λ0 (idealized). (a) Positive Cotton effect. (b) Negative Cotton effect.

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from article Cotton effect

Curves used to determine relative rotatory intensities. (a) Partial ORD curve. (b) Partial CD curve.

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from article Cotton effect

Structural formula of (+)-trans-9-methyl-1,4,9,10- tetrahydronaphthalene.

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from article Cotton effect

Schematic representation of the twisted diene chromophore showing the two possible handednesses; the numbering is as indicated in Fig. 3 (a) Right-handed. (b) Left-handed.

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from article Parity (quantum mechanics)

Beta decay from polarized cobalt-60 nuclei. When the spin axes of the cobalt nuclei are not polarized, the preferential emission of the electrons and antineutrinos in the directions shown does not occur.

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from article Crystal optics

Index ellipsoid, showing construction of directions of vibrations of D vectors belonging to a wave normal s. The vectors D′ and D″ define the orthogonal decomposition of the displacement vector D and will depend on the orientation in the x, y, z…

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from article Crystal optics

Huygens construction for a plane wave incident normally on transparent calcite. If one proceeds to find the common tangents to the secondary wavelets shown, the two plane waves labeled OO′ and EE′ are obtained. (After F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White,…

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from article Crystal optics

Huygens construction when the optic axis lies in the plane of incidence. (After F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976)

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from article Crystal optics

X-cut and Z-cut plates in NH4H2PO4 crystal.

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from article Crystal optics

Interference pattern from crystals that have been placed between crossed Nicol prisms. (a) Fluorspar that has been cut perpendicular to the optic axis. (b) Brazil topaz. (After M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th ed., reprinted with…

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from article Sextant

Marine sextant.

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from article Sextant

Periscopic sextant for use in aircraft.

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from article Pirani gage

Diagram of a Pirani gage.

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from article Thévenin's theorem (electric networks)

Network and its Thévenin equivalent. (a) Original network. (b) Thévenin equivalent circuit.

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from article Thévenin's theorem (electric networks)

Network and its Norton equivalent. (a) Original network. (b) Norton equivalent circuit.

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from article Thévenin's theorem (electric networks)

Power distribution circuit and its Thévenin and Norton equivalents. (a) Original circuit. (b) Thévenin equivalent circuit with its load ZL connected. (c) Norton equivalent circuit.

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from article Thévenin's theorem (electric networks)

Amplifier and its Thévenin and Norton equivalents. Numerical values are given in the text. (a) Original circuit. (b) Circuit constructed to find Thévenin impedance. (c) Thévenin equivalent circuit. (d) Norton equivalent circuit.

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from article Thévenin's theorem (electric networks)