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The ongoing lower level of species extinction intensity occurring between episodes of mass extinctions. Extinction is a normal part of the history of life. Out of every 100 species that have ever lived on Earth, 99 are no longer in existence.…

Typically, an aquatic vertebrate with scales, gills, and paired fins. Fishes (Fig. 1) are found throughout the world's waterways, from saltwater oceans to freshwater streams and ponds. About 35,000 species of fishes have been described to date. Many…

Food packaging prevents contamination and extends the shelf-life of food products, making food safe and available to the public. Common food-packaging materials include metals, glass, paper, and plastics. Of these, metals, glass, and recyclable…

A subdiscipline of paleobiology that investigates the processes of preservation and their influence on information in the fossil record. Taphonomy is the study of fossilization and considers the processes at work in the incorporation of living…

Mechanized systems of food and fiber production used in agriculture. The mechanized systems comprising agricultural machinery are utilized in numerous aspects of agriculture, including the initial tillage of the soil (Fig. 1), planting, cultural…

A small, tropical, evergreen tree (Pimenta dioica) and its dried, unripe fruit (berry). Allspice (Pimenta dioica; alternatively, P. officinalis) [see illustration] is a member of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). Allspice, which is also known as…

Most commonly, a generic name for all fossil resins, although it has been restricted by some to refer only to succinite, the mineralogical species of fossil resin that includes most of the Baltic Coast deposits. The time necessary to transform resin…

A genus of fossil birds in the extinct order Archaeopterygiformes, characterized by flight feathers like those of modern birds. Archaeopteryx is generally accepted as the oldest known fossil bird. It represents a unique snapshot of evolution; most…

Any vegetable that is prevalent in Asian cuisines, but less well known in Western diets. Asian vegetables (Fig. 1), also referred to as Asian greens or oriental vegetables, are very important in Asian countries, but are not as popular in North…

A medium-sized, spreading evergreen tree (Anacardium occidentale), which is grown widely in the tropics for its kidney-shaped edible nuts (also called cashews) and the resinous oil in the shells of the nuts. Cashew trees, which are native to Brazil,…

A class in the phylum Mollusca that is exclusively marine and includes squids, octopuses, and cuttlefishes. The molluscan class Cephalopoda is one of the major taxonomic groupings of marine animals and contains both extant members—squids (Fig. 1),…

Any member of the grass family (Poaceae or Gramineae) that produces edible grains usable as food by humans and livestock. Cereals are important cultivated crops. Common cereals include rice, wheat, barley, oats, maize (corn), sorghum, rye, and…

An order of the class Reptilia, including the turtles, terrapins, and tortoises; also termed Testudines. The order Chelonia (often referred to as Testudines) comprises one of the oldest groups of reptiles on Earth. Members of the Chelonia…

An evergreen shrub or small tree, particularly Cinnamomum verum, and the spice obtained from the plant's bark. The cinnamon plant (see illustration) is a member of the laurel family (Lauraceae) in the order Laurales. Native to Sri Lanka, the…

Any living or fossil member of the plant division Pinophyta, consisting chiefly of woody trees or shrubs that produce cones and evergreen needles. Conifers are predominantly cone-bearing, evergreen trees and shrubs belonging to the order Pinales, as…

Genealogists and anthropologists have long disputed the provenance of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). Although genetic analyses and fossil evidence indicate that the domestic dog descended from the gray wolf (Canis lupus), the exact location…

Food waste occurs at all levels of the supply chain and beyond, from farm to table, for reasons ranging from spoilage to over-buying. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Economic Research Service defines food waste as “the edible amount of…

The death and disappearance of a species. The extinction of a species usually represents an end point in a long series of population extinctions. During the extinction process, unique evolutionary history is lost at every stage, but the death of the…

An enzymatic transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of a gas. Fermentation is a chemical transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, to alcohol or organic acids,…

Pasta comes in various sizes and shapes, ranging from long and flat (such as linguine and spaghetti) to short types in the shape of shells (conchiglie), corkscrews (fusilli), and many others. Shaped pastas contain a larger volume of air, resulting…

The application of different types of energy and techniques involving equipment and apparatuses to transform agricultural products of plant and animal origin or seafood into food ingredients, semifinished commodities, and finished ready-to-eat…

The study of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of foods as well as the sensory, nutritional, storage properties, and safety of foods. Food properties are influenced by growing, harvesting, and slaughtering practices, preservation and…

Any of the grasses and legumes that make up grasslands and are consumed by grazing livestock. Grasslands represent an ancient renewable natural resource. In general, grasslands form 25% of the world's vegetation and occupy the largest area of any…

A record of earlier life buried in rock. Originally meaning any distinctive object that has been dug up (from Latin fodio, dig), the term “fossil” soon came to refer particularly to things resembling animals and plants. These objects were known…

A hardy perennial, Allium sativum, of Asiatic origin and belonging to the plant order Asparagales. Garlic is grown for its pungent bulbs (see illustration). Segments of these are used primarily for seasoning. Europeans have grown garlic for probably…

An important spice or condiment, and the plant (Zingiber officinale) from which it is obtained. The ginger plant, Zingiber officinale, is a member of the ginger family Zingiberaceae and is a native of southeastern Asia. The plant is an erect…

Any of the crop plants belonging to the grass family (Poaceae or Gra­mineae) that are generally grown for their edible starchy seeds. Grain crops are often referred to as cereal crops and include wheat, rice, corn (maize), barley (see illustration),…

An uncrewed, controlled-flight vehicle that is guided to a target by guidance and control equipment. This equipment may be carried in the missile vehicle itself, or guidance may be directed from the launch site. The term is generally reserved for…