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A model for the functioning of an agricultural system, with all inputs and outputs. An ecosystem may be as small as a set of microbial interactions that take place on the surface of roots, or as large as the globe. An agroecosystem may be at the…

Plant growth forms characteristic of upper reaches of forests on mountain slopes. In such an environment, trees undergo gradual changes that, though subtle at first, may become dramatic beyond the dense forest as the zone of transition leads into…

Intergrading regions on mountain slopes characterized by specific plant life forms or species composition, and determined by complex environmental gradients.Along an altitudinal transect of a mountain, there are sequential changes in the physiognomy…

Collectively, members of the class Amphibia are facing massive reductions in total numbers, and the overall biodiversity of amphibians across the globe is under threat. Scientists have determined that global climate change and habitat destruction…

A method used by animals to conceal themselves from an enemy by appearing to be a section of the natural background. Animal camouflage is a strategy that animal organisms use to avoid or deflect the attacks of predators by misleading the latter's…

An ongoing current event in which a large number of living species are threatened with extinction or are going extinct because of environmentally destructive human activities. The Earth is presently in the midst of a mass extinction event. In the…

The application of ecological principles to the solution of human problems and the maintenance of a quality life. It is assumed that humans are an integral part of ecological systems and that they depend upon healthy, well-operating, and productive…

The cultivation of freshwater and marine species for human purposes. Aquaculture, or aquatic farming, is concerned with the raising of animals and the harvesting of plants in freshwater and marine environments (Fig. 1). In other words, it is the…