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2019 International Year of the Periodic Table Published in 2019

The United Nations has proclaimed 2019 the International Year of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements (IYPT2019). The same year also marks the 150th anniversary of the publication of Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table, containing…

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Harnessing the power of nuclear fusion in tokamak reactors Published in 2019

Progress continues in the attempt to master nuclear fusion—the phenomenon that powers the stars, including our Sun—for energy production here on Earth. Recent research has identified a previously unknown kind of heat burst that causes…

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January 2019 breakdown of the polar vortex Published in 2019

Earth’s surface temperature is warming, and the Arctic region is warming even faster. Yet winters in the mid-latitudes of Asia, Europe, and the United States have been colder than average, thanks to blasts of record-breaking frigid air caused by…

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Antarctic ozone hole recovery observed Published in 2018

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol, the international treaty banning chemicals that deplete the ozone layer, was adopted. Thirty years later, NASA scientists reported in the journal Geophysical Research Letters (January 2018) satellite measurements…

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August 2018 Indonesia earthquake Published in 2018

On August 5, 2018 at 6:46 p.m. local time, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck in Pulau Lombok, Indonesia. The earthquake occurred as the result of thrust faulting at a depth of 10.5 km (6.5 mi) in northern Lombok, according to the United States…

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Cooling paint Published in 2018

In the journal Science (September 2018), researchers reported a method for making a coating that reflects sunlight and radiates heat. The coating can be used to cool buildings and reduce air-conditioning use, keeping surfaces painted with the…

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Crown-of-thorns starfish threaten the Great Barrier Reef Published in 2018

Crown-of-thorns starfish or sea stars (Acanthaster planci; order Valvatida) are predatory marine invertebrates that feed on phytoplankton found on coral. They are native inhabitants of coral reefs in both the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean and are…

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Demand for and environmental impacts of sand mining Published in 2018

Sand is mined for many applications, but the largest use by far is for fine aggregate in concrete. Smaller quantities of sand are used for fracking, water treatment (filtration), metal casting, and making glass, silicon chips, and ceramics. Concrete…

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Engineering of the Mississippi River has increased flood hazards Published in 2018

The Mississippi River has undergone extensive river engineering for flood control, with its 3500-mile Mississippi River and Tributaries levee (artificial-embankment) system. However, researchers reported in Nature (April 2018) that disconnecting the…

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Environmentally friendly sunscreens from biological sources Published in 2018

Sunscreens are polluting the ocean, and increasing evidence points toward some ultraviolet-light–absorbing chemicals found in sunscreens as being harmful to marine life—particularly corals at popular tourist destinations. While working toward…

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First detection of a radioactive molecule in space Published in 2018

In July 2018, researchers reported the first definitive detection of a radioactive molecule outside of the solar system. The molecule, aluminum monofluoride (AlF), contains the radioactive isotope aluminum-26, forged deep inside a star through…

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Massive seabird die-off attributed to ocean warming Published in 2018

In the fall of 2014 and early winter of 2015, an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 seabirds known as Cassin's auklets (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) died along the Pacific Coast from California to British Columbia, Canada. Researchers have now reported the…

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Ocean acidification affecting fishes' sense of smell Published in 2018

Humans' contributions to global warming through burning fossil fuels and other actions (for example, detrimental land-use practices) have resulted in sharp increases in the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). These rising levels of CO2 also…

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Plasma-surfing electrons point to compact particle accelerators Published in 2018

For the first time, researchers have successfully accelerated electrons in a wave of plasma driven by protons. The breakthrough points to a way of constructing smaller, thriftier particle accelerators in the future. Electron Particle accelerator…

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The potential for natural climate solutions in the United States Published in 2018

Limiting the effects of climate change to the greatest extent possible will require reducing greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions and removing GHGs from the atmosphere. In addition, the shared goal of the countries that have entered into the Paris Climate…

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Sargassum seaweed bloom fouling Caribbean shorelines Published in 2018

By July 6, 2018, beaches on the eastern coast of St. Vincent—an island located in the southeastern Caribbean Sea (Lesser Antilles)—were covered nearly one-meter deep with rotting brown algae (seaweed), known as Sargassum, posing multiple problems…

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Turn your smartphone into a microscope Published in 2018

Researchers from the Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics have developed a smartphone microscope that uses the camera’s internal flash as the light source. Their development, described in Scientific…

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Underestimated U.S. natural-gas leaks undermine climate benefits Published in 2018

For more than 10 years, natural-gas-fired power plants have been touted as “cleaner” electrical power generators, producing half the carbon dioxide (CO2), one-third of the nitrogen oxides (NOX), and negligible sulfur oxides (SOX) compared to…

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A brief history of spectroscopy Published in 2017

In the historical development of spectroscopy, following the fundamental studies of crude spectra of sunlight by Isaac Newton in 1672, certain contributions and achievements are especially noteworthy. The significance of using a narrow slit instead…

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Cool roofs save energy and water Published in 2017

As the global climate becomes hotter and drier, heat mitigation in urban areas through the use of cool roofs is becoming increasingly important. Cool roofs reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat than conventional roofs, according to the U.S.…

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Deadly heat in an era of global climate change Published in 2017

There are 27 ways a heat wave can kill you, according to a report in the American Heart Association journal Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes (November 2017). By 2100, at the current rate of greenhouse-gas emissions, three-quarters of…

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Durability of Roman marine concrete Published in 2017

Roman marine concrete, having lasted for nearly 2000 years, is a highly durable material. In contrast, modern marine concrete, which is made using Portland cement, may start to degrade in as few as 50 years. Researchers have now discovered why. As…

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Feathered dinosaur tail in amber Published in 2017

Recent excavations in Asia unearthed a pristine, three-dimensional fossil of a tiny dinosaur tail with preserved feathers and soft tissues (presumably skin). In 2016, investigators in northern Myanmar (Burma) recovered a piece of Cretaceous-era…

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Global climate change affects Arctic treeline Published in 2017

Global climate change affects all areas of the Earth, with some regions experiencing greater impacts than others. In particular, the Arctic treeline—that is, the southern limit of the Arctic Bioclimate Zone—is being affected to various degrees by…

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Hurricane Harvey (Atlantic, 2017) Published in 2017

Hurricane Harvey made landfall near the middle of the Texas Gulf Coast on August 25, 2017 as a Category 4 storm on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale and essentially hovered over the region for seven days, unleashing heavy rain and causing…

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Hurricane Irma (Atlantic, 2017) Published in 2017

On August 30, 2017, just as Hurricane Harvey was winding down in Texas, tropical storm Irma formed near the Cape Verde Islands located off the northwest coast of Africa and began moving west-northwest. According to the U.S. National Hurricane…

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Hurricane Maria (Atlantic, 2017) Published in 2017

If three occurrences constitute a trend, then catastrophic storms—that is, Category 4 or 5 storms on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale—are the trend for Atlantic hurricanes in 2017. One day after forming as a tropical depression, Potential…

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Increased carbon emissions from tropical forest degradation Published in 2017

Forests absorb and store carbon. If this ability is hampered, then levels of atmospheric carbon will increase and global temperatures will rise, leading to potentially drastic climatic changes. In particular, deforestation (the permanent elimination…

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Lusi mud volcano cause resolved Published in 2017

Ever since the Lusi mud volcano began erupting on May 29, 2006, in the Porong subdistrict of Sidoarjo in East Java, Indonesia, scientists have been unable to agree on its cause. Two days before to the eruption, two events occurred—a magnitude 6.3…

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Mangrove forests provide protection against tsunamis Published in 2017

Mangrove forests are taxonomically diverse assemblages of trees and shrubs that form the dominant plant communities in tidal, saline wetlands along sheltered tropical and subtropical coasts. They have several ecological and physical functions that…

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More reliable tornado forecasting method Published in 2017

Tornado warnings save lives. In order to save lives, however, tornado warnings—issued when a tornado has been sighted or identified by Doppler radar—need to be early and accurate. According to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration…

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Neural basis of rhythm in music Published in 2017

Traditionally, the lowest-pitched (bass) instruments have provided the rhythmic foundation in musical ensembles. Researchers from McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, reporting in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (June…

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Paris climate agreement Published in 2017

The Paris Agreement is a treaty signed by 195 member nations of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in an effort to reduce greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions, primarily of carbon dioxide and methane, thereby limiting the…

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Plastic waste pollution Published in 2017

In an attempt to quantify the amount of plastics ever produced and what has happened to them, researchers produced the first global analysis using data collected from plastic industry sources. As reported in Science Advances (July 2017), 8300…

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Proton and antiproton magnetic property measured with new precision Published in 2017

Researchers at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland have demonstrated that the proton and its antimatter doppelganger, the antiproton, are identical to a new high degree of precision. The motivation behind the…

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Reaching the 50-qubit milestone in quantum computing Published in 2017

The continuing development of quantum computing, a potentially revolutionary form of number-crunching, has reached a new milestone. Earlier this month, IBM announced the building of a prototype 50-qubit processor for the company’s quantum cloud…

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September 2017 Mexico earthquakes Published in 2017

Two major earthquakes struck Mexico, a seismically active country, within two weeks in September 2017. The first and strongest earthquake occurred off the southern Pacific coast of Mexico and the second earthquake occurred 11 days later in central…

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Severe coral bleaching endangers Great Barrier Reef Published in 2017

Research into the depleted state of the Great Barrier Reef, one of the great wonders of the natural world, provides a vivid case study of the extreme harm that the warming climate and the affliction called coral bleaching cause globally. In March…

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Warm Atlantic water is melting Arctic sea ice Published in 2017

Arctic sea-ice cover has been steadily thinning for years, according to satellite measurements since 1979. In March 2017, when ice cover should have been near its maximum, the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center reported that Arctic sea-ice…

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Wildfire impact on air quality Published in 2017

Wildfires are known to emit large amounts of gaseous and particulate pollutants. In an effort to identify and quantify these pollutants, researchers took their instruments to the skies where they sampled and analyzed smoke plumes from aircraft…

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2016 North Korea nuclear test Published in 2016

A magnitude 5.1 nuclear test was detected 376 km (234 mi) NE of Pyongyang, North Korea (DPRK) on January 6, 2015 at 10:30 a.m. local time (01:30 UTC), according to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The event was picked up at seismic stations around…

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April 2016 Ecuador earthquake Published in 2016

A powerful magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck Ecuador on April 16, 2016 at 6:58 p.m. local time, causing extensive damage to buildings and infrastructure as well as hundreds of fatalities and thousands of injuries. The epicenter was located 52.0 km…

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Cold-dry limits of life on Earth Published in 2016

High within the coldest and driest continent, Antarctica, lies what may be an environment too hostile to support life, according to a team of scientists from Canada and the United States. They reported finding no evidence of microbial life in the…

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Effect of volcanic ash on aircraft jet engines Published in 2016

When volcanoes erupt explosively, they can hurl huge ash plumes of fine (<2 mm) glassy and jagged rock and mineral fragments into the atmosphere. The smallest of these ash particles, less than 200 micrometers across, can travel hundreds of…

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GPS-enhanced tsunami warning system Published in 2016

A regional or local tsunami warning system that uses both seismic and GPS stations could broadcast more prompt and accurate tsunami warnings and could potentially reduce casualties in the event of a major earthquake, according to a report in…

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Groundwater recharge Published in 2016

Groundwater is the most abundant source of freshwater for drinking and irrigation. It is a renewable resource that is stored in underground reservoirs (aquifers) and replenished by precipitation. Withdrawing groundwater faster than it is replenished…

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How spectroscopy relates to spectrometry Published in 2016

Spectroscopy is the study of the absorption, emission, or scattering of electromagnetic radiation, ranging from x-rays to radio waves, by atoms or molecules. The spectroscopic techniques are known as spectrometry and the instruments of spectrometry…

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Hurricane Alex (North Atlantic, January 2016) Published in 2016

In a rare winter occurrence, a North Atlantic hurricane, named Alex, attained Category 1 strength on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale in January 2016. Alex is only the second Atlantic hurricane known to have formed in the month of January.…

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Lake warming Published in 2016

Most lakes worldwide are warming, according to a survey of lake summer surface water temperatures (LSSWT) released in late 2015, the most comprehensive of its kind to date. Using both satellite and ground-based data obtained from 1985 to 2009 for…

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Phosphorus pollution increases in U.S. lakes and streams Published in 2016

Between 2004 and 2014, the total phosphorus content of lakes and streams in the contiguous (lower 48) United States rose, according to surveys by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported in the journal Environmental Science &…

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Phototaxis Published in 2016

Light provides many organisms with both energy and information about their surroundings, which is why these organisms commonly display motile responses to light. Such movements of motile organisms or free plant parts in response to light stimulation…

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Stretchable electroluminescent skin for soft robotics Published in 2016

In an advance for soft robotics, a young technology that finds inspiration in living things, research engineers developed a promising material that imitates the extraordinary flexibility, sensitivity, and luminescence of squids, octopuses,…

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2015 Nepal earthquake Published in 2015

On April 25, 2015 at 11:56 a.m local time, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck in the district of Lamjung, approximately 80 km northwest of Kathmandu, Nepal. The earthquake occurred as the result of thrust faulting [15.0 km (9.3 mi) in depth] in the…

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The bright future of LED lighting Published in 2015

Although sales will continue for as long as inventory remains, worldwide production of incandescent lights (lamps) has mostly been phased out by the push for more energy-efficient lighting and improvements in light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and…

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Dissolved organic carbon in the deep ocean biodegrades after all Published in 2015

For nearly 50 years, marine chemists have generally accepted that when microscopic organic compounds in seawater, known as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), sank into the deep ocean below 1000 m in depth, they became resistant to microbial…

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Drought-tolerant landscaping Published in 2015

Much of coastal and southern California has a Mediterranean climate, which is characterized by cooler, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers. Only drought-resistant plant species can survive without irrigation in this type of climate. Turf…

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Effect of volcanic SO2 emissions on cloud albedo Published in 2015

Researchers from the University of Washington took advantage of the six-month-long Bárdarbunga-Veidivötn fissure eruption in Iceland, from August 31, 2014 to February 28, 2015, to investigate the effect of its sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions on cloud…

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Effects of dam removal Published in 2015

Since 1975, approximately 1200 dams have been removed from rivers in the United States, including 72 in 2014. Some of these dams were in danger of failure, others had become functionally obsolete because their reservoirs had filled with sediment,…

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Glacial earthquakes Published in 2015

Glacial earthquakes are moderate (roughly magnitude 5) seismic events that occur when ice flowing to the ocean from large glaciers, or ice sheets, breaks off (calves). They were discovered in 2003 by Göran Ekström and coworkers as an anomalous…

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Hurricane Patricia (Eastern Pacific, 2015) Published in 2015

Over a 21-hour period from October 22 to 23, 2015, Hurricane Patricia strengthened from a Category one to a Category five storm on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, breaking a number of meteorological records along the way prior to slamming…

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Induced earthquakes Published in 2015

On April 29, 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reported five earthquakes in Oklahoma of magnitude 2.5 or greater—that is, tremors strong enough to be felt. The most powerful of these was a M4.1 earthquake 21 km (13 mi) west of the city of…

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Living shorelines for coastal protection Published in 2015

For years, protecting shorelines from flooding and erosion was managed by installing "hard" structures such as concrete retaining walls known as bulkheads and seawalls. Bulkheads, for example, are intended to prevent erosion by holding back the…

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Record three major Pacific hurricanes observed simultaneously Published in 2015

On August 29, 2015, three major hurricanes were active over the Pacific Ocean at the same time—a meteorological first. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Hurricane Center, a major hurricane has wind…

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Sea turtle navigation Published in 2015

One of the most remarkable features of the sea (marine) turtles that inhabit the tropical and subtropical waters of the world is their homing ability. Throughout the year, sea turtles swim huge distances, often more than 1600 kilometers (1000…

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September 2015 Chile earthquake Published in 2015

On September 16, 2015 at 7:54 p.m. local time, a magnitude 8.3 earthquake struck approximately 229 km (142 mi) NNW of Santiago, the capital of Chile. The earthquake occurred as the result of thrust faulting [25.0 km (15.5 mi) in depth] between the…

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Tropical Cyclones Chapala and Megh (Arabian Sea, 2015) Published in 2015

Over a period of 14 days, from October 28, 2015 to November 10, 2015, two tropical cyclones formed and traversed the Arabian Sea, taking nearly identical paths and bringing hurricane-strength winds and abundant rainfall to Yemen and its island of…

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U.S. Clean Power Plan Published in 2015

On August 3, 2015, President Barack Obama announced in a White House ceremony the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Clean Power Plan (CPP) for reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the country’s stationary fossil-fuel power…

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Warm blob in the Pacific Ocean Published in 2015

The “Blob" is the name given by Nicholas Bond of the University of Washington to an area of unusually warm water off the Pacific Northwest of North America (Gulf of Alaska). It was first detected by satellite imagery in the fall of 2013 as an…

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Yeti crabs Published in 2015

A recently discovered group of crustaceans called yeti crabs (genus Kiwa, order Decapoda) have added to the number of extraordinary and previously unknown species inhabiting the harsh, inhospitable environment around hydrothermal vents on the deep…

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The causes of sinkholes Published in 2014

Sinkholes form when surface sediments collapse, sometimes dramatically, into a cavity below. They can be an unintended consequence of human activity. For example, on May 22, 2014, after a water main burst on the Lower East Side of New York City, the…

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Detection of the Higgs boson Published in 2014

On July 4, 2012, physicists at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) beneath Geneva, Switzerland, the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, announced that they had detected one of the most elusive and eagerly sought prizes in all of science: the…

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Evidence found for plate tectonics on Europa Published in 2014

Europa, one of the four largest natural satellites, or moons, orbiting the planet Jupiter, may be the first planetary body in the solar system other than Earth to show evidence of plate tectonics, a research team from the University of Idaho and…

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First direct measurement of van der Waals force Published in 2014

The very weak attractive forces between neutral atoms and molecules are known as van der Waals forces. These forces are important for holding molecules together and influencing materials properties such as boiling and melting points, solubility,…

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Giant squid finally captured on video Published in 2014

Perhaps the most mysterious and sought-after of all ocean creatures, the giant squid Architeuthis dux was finally captured on video in its natural habitat in July 2012 during an expedition off the coast of the Ogasawara archipelago of Japan. The…

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Hotter core for Earth Published in 2014

The Earth’s core consists of a solid inner and a fluid outer region and extends from a depth of about 2900 km (1800 mi), the lower edge of the mantle, to about 6400 km (3800 mi), the center of the planet. At about 5100 km (3100 mi) down, the core is…

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Landslide detection and modeling Published in 2014

Every year, landslides claim thousands of lives and cause considerable economic damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructure around the world. As natural hazards, landslides are largely unpredictable. Improvements in the monitoring,…

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Madden-Julian oscillation Published in 2014

The Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO), also known as the tropical intraseasonal oscillation, is a cyclic weather pattern (wave) that travels from west to east along the equator every 30–90 days. The MJO, discovered by in 1971 by Roland Madden and Paul…

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MXenes Published in 2014

MXenes are sheets of transition metal carbides and carbonitrides 3–7 atoms in thickness; for example, Ti3C2 and Ti3CN. Single- and few-atom-thick sheets are called two-dimensional (2D) materials. The best-known 2D material is graphene, which…

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New geologic map of Mars Published in 2014

The U.S. Geological Survey published a new and extraordinarily detailed global geologic map of Mars on July 14, 2104, based on remotely sensed image and topographic data gathered over 16 years by four orbiting spacecraft: Mars Global Surveyor…

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New high in atmospheric carbon dioxide Published in 2014

For the month of April 2012, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported the first-ever average concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) of 400 parts per million at a remote location. The air samples were collected…

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Potential of soils for carbon sequestration Published in 2014

Soil organic matter represents a reservoir of stored (sequestered) carbon that slowly cycles between the earth and the atmosphere. It is predominately composed of humus stabilized by clay particles, with the remainder being less stable decaying…

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The quest for loop quantum gravity Published in 2014

Loop quantum gravity is one of several concepts under development by theoretical physicists to provide a description of gravity in terms of quantum mechanics.For decades, physicists have sought to reconcile the two major pillars of modern physics…

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Resilient building design Published in 2014

When the Whitney Museum of American Art opens its new building in downtown New York City in 2015 it will have watertight doors and glass on the ground level as well as a temporary flood barrier that can be quickly assembled around its perimeter. Of…

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Southwestern Australia adapts to drier climate Published in 2014

In Southwestern Australia, drought is the new norm. Rainfall there has been below average since 2012 and yearly averages have been dropping since 1970. Researchers from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), using a new and…

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Strongest deep earthquake ever recorded (Sea of Okhotsk, 2013) Published in 2014

On May 24, 2013 at 3:44 p.m. local time, a magnitude 8.3 earthquake struck deep below the Sea of Okhotsk about 406 km west-northwest of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy, Russia. The earthquake occurred as the result of normal faulting at a depth of 609 km,…

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Synthesis of a polymer that mimics lubricin Published in 2014

A new polymer has a molecular structure and physical properties very similar to those of lubricin, a protein that lubricates the opposing bone surfaces in moving (articulating) joints of the body. Chemistry researchers from the University of…

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Topological insulators Published in 2014

Topological insulators are paradoxical materials: they have an electrically insulating interior and a conductive exterior, yet they have the same composition throughout. In addition, the direction in which the electrons travel through the conductive…

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Tornado activity and climate change Published in 2014

Since the early 1950s, the U.S. National Weather Service’s Storm Prediction Center has been collecting tornado data. From 1952 to 2011, there has been a steady increase in the total number of tornadoes reported in the United States annually, largely…

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Unification theories and a theory of everything Published in 2014

An ongoing endeavor in physics for at least the past three centuries has been the attempt to unify the disparate phenomena of nature within a single theoretical framework and a single set of descriptive equations. Isaac Newton was perhaps the first…

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Voyager 1 crosses the heliopause into interstellar space Published in 2014

After 35 years of flight through space, the Voyage 1 probe finally entered interstellar space on August 25, 2012, according to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). On that date, at a distance of approximately 12 billion miles…

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Voyager spacecraft and the edge of the heliosphere Published in 2014

The two Voyager space probes launched by NASA in 1977 completed their inspections of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune back during the 1980s, yet they have continued to contribute to science since then with their ongoing measurements…

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World’s fastest organic transistor Published in 2014

Researchers from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) and Stanford University reported in Nature Communications on January 8, 2014 an organic thin-film transistor with the highest speed rating ever measured. For liquid crystal displays, faster…

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Dark lightning linked to visible lightning Published in 2013

Until recent years, the research focus on the high-energy photons known as gamma rays has been on nuclear and cosmic sources for them. Now it has moved to the cloud—the thundercloud, that is—where short bursts of gamma rays, known as terrestrial…

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from article Oolite

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Plain light micrographs of thin sections of ooids and pisoids. (a) Oolite of Mississippian age, southwestern Indiana. (b) Pisoids from the hot springs of Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad), Czech Republic. The lower right pisoid shows a rock fragment nucleus…

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from article Atmospheric tides

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Variation of tidal amplitudes with height. The shaded area shows the general range of solar diurnal and semidiurnal amplitudes (on a logarithmic scale) as a function of height. The line corresponds to amplitude varying inversely with the square root…

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from article Skin friction

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Sketch of boundary-layer flow over a flat plate. Here, u is the component of fluid velocity parallel to the plate surface, which reaches u∞ at the edge of the boundary layer. (From J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 10th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2010)

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from article Skin friction

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Skin-friction coefficient for flow of Newtonian fluids over flat plates. (a) Low-Reynolds-number regime. The curved lines are based on the solutions of C. W. Oseen, H. Blasius, and I. Imai to equations for viscous flow, and the symbols are data.…

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from article Skin friction

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Skin-friction coefficient for flow of Newtonian fluids over rough flat plates. (Adapted from F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2016)

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from article Skin friction

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Placoid scales (dermal denticles) of a lemon shark, viewed through a scanning electron microscope. (Credit: Pascal Deynat/Odontobase)

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