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A diverse group of early jawed fishes from the Paleozoic Era, usually classified as a distinct class of vertebrates. Most acanthodians have tiny body scales with a cross section like that of an onion, the layers reflecting incremental scale growth.…

An order of actinopterygian (ray-finned) fishes represented by the sturgeons and paddlefishes. The order Acipenseriformes, the only extant order of about 10–12 orders of chondrosteans (subclass Chondrostei), probably originated from palaeonisciform…

An order of inarticulated brachiopods. Together with Lingulida and Siphonotretida, Acrotretida is one of the three orders of inarticulated brachiopods currently classified in class Lingulata in subphylum Linguliformea (phylum Brachiopoda).…

A class of teleostom fishes commonly known as the ray-finned fishes, which are distinguished by the structure of the paired fins that are supported by dermal rays. The class Actinopterygii comprises the subclasses Cladistia [Polypteriformes (bichirs…

Aeronomy concentrates on the regions above the tropopause or upper part of the atmosphere. The region of the atmosphere below the tropopause is the site of most of the weather phenomena that so directly affect all life on the planet; this region has…

A variety of chalcedonic quartz that is distinguished by the presence of color banding in curved or irregular patterns (Fig. 1). Most agate used for ornamental purposes is composed of two or more tones or intensities of brownish-red, often…

An order of extremely elongate, limbless fossil amphibians in the subclass Lepospondyli from Permo-Carboniferous rocks of North America and Europe. The order Aistopoda (also spelled Aïstopoda) consists of extremely elongate, limbless fossil…

A sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar mineral whose composition extends over the range Ab100An0 to Ab90An10, where Ab (= albite) is NaAlSi3O8 and An (= anorthite) is CaAl2Si2O8 (see illustration). Albite occurs in crustal igneous rocks as a major…

Light emissions in the upper atmosphere from elemental lithium, potassium, and especially sodium. These alkali metals are present in the upper atmosphere at altitudes from about 50 to 62 mi (80 to 100 km) and are very efficient in resonant…

A mineral of composition KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6. Alunite occurs in white to gray rhombohedral crystals or in fine-grained, compact masses. It has a hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 2.6–2.8.Alunite is produced by sulfurous vapors on acid volcanic…

Most commonly, a generic name for all fossil resins, although it has been restricted by some to refer only to succinite, the mineralogical species of fossil resin that includes most of the Baltic Coast deposits. Resins generally are complex mixtures…

The transparent purple to violet variety of the mineral quartz. Although quartz is perhaps the commonest gem mineral known, amethyst is rare in the deep colors that characterize fine quality. Amethyst is usually colored unevenly and is often heated…

Determination of the relative or absolute age of materials or objects by measurement of the degree of racemization of the amino acids present. With the exception of glycine, the amino acids found in proteins can exist in two isomeric forms called d-…

An extinct subclass of Cephalopoda (phylum Mollusca). Besides the Ammonoidea (chambered ammonoids), the other subclasses of Cephalopoda are Nautiloidea (chambered nautiloids) and Coleoidea (squid, cuttlefish, octopus, and extinct belemnites), both…

One of four classes (the others are Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia) composing the superclass Tetrapoda of the subphylum Vertebrata. The living amphibians number over 4700 species and are classified in three orders: Salientia or Anura (frogs and toads,…

A mineral with a framework structure in which all the aluminosilicate tetrahedral vertices are linked, thus allying it to the feldspars, feldspathoids, and zeolites. The structure is cubic, space group Ia3d, a = 1.371 mm. Its formula is…

Formerly, a group of reptiles that was recognized in rank-based classifications. Amniotes were once divided into subclasses, based on the patterns of temporal fenestrae (openings in the skull roof posterior to the openings for the eyes). Subclass…

A group of fossil jawless fishes, roughly similar in appearance to extant lampreys, known from Early Silurian–Early Devonian deposits (about 410–430 million years ago) that represent marine, coastal environments. Anaspid fossils are known…

A nesosilicate mineral, composition Al2SiO5, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It occurs commonly in large, nearly square prismatic crystals. The variety chiastolite has inclusions of dark-colored carbonaceous material arranged in a regular…

A plagioclase feldspar with composition Ab70An30 to Ab50An50 (Ab = NaAlSi3O8; An = CaAl2Si2O8). Andesine occurs primarily in igneous rocks, often in a glassy matrix as small, chemically zoned, lathlike crystals known as microlites. The rock types…

A typical volcanic rock erupted from a volcano associated with convergent plate boundaries. The process of subduction, which defines convergent plate boundaries, results in the sinking of oceanic lithosphere beneath either oceanic lithosphere or…

A mineral with the chemical composition PbSO4. Anglesite occurs in white or gray, orthorhombic, tabular or prismatic crystals or compact masses (see illustration). It is a common secondary mineral, usually formed by the oxidation of galena. Fracture…

A mineral with the chemical composition CaSO4. Anhydrite occurs commonly in white and grayish granular masses, rarely in large, orthorhombic crystals (see illustration). Fracture is uneven and luster is pearly to vitreous. Hardness is 3–3.5 on Mohs…

The carbonate mineral Ca(Fe,Mg)(CO3)2, also commonly containing some manganese. The mineral has hexagonal (rhombohedral) symmetry (see illustration) and has the cation-ordered structure of dolomite. The name is applied only to those species in which…

The phylum comprising the multisegmented, invertebrate wormlike animals, of which the most numerous are the marine bristle worms and the most familiar the terrestrial earthworms. The Annelida (meaning little annuli or rings) include the Polychaeta…

The calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar with composition Ab0An100 to Ab10An90 (Ab = NaAlSi3O8; An = CaAl2Si2O8), occurring in olivine-rich igneous rocks and rare volcanic ejecta (for example, at Mount Vesuvius, Italy, and Miyakejima, Japan). Hardness…

The name usually given to alkali feldspars which have a chemical composition ranging from Or40Ab60 to Or10Ab90± up to approximately 20 mole % An (Or, Ab, An = KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8, CaAl2Si2O8) and which deviate in one way or another from monoclinic…

A rock composed of 90 vol % or more of plagioclase feldspar. Strictly, the rock is composed entirely of crystals discernible with the eye, but some finely crystalline examples from the Moon have been called anorthosite or anorthositic breccia. Two…

Oxygen-depleted regions in marine environments. The dynamic steady state between oxygen supply and consumption determines the oxygen concentration. In regions where the rate of consumption equals or exceeds the rate of supply, seawater becomes…

The Antarctic Circle is an imaginary line that delimits the northern boundary of Antarctica. It is a distinctive parallel of latitude at approximately 66°30′ south. Thus it is located about 4590 mi (7345 km) south of the Equator and about 1630 mi…

Sea-level rise is caused by adding mass (water) and heat to the ocean. The Antarctic ice sheet represents a potentially large source of water. Knowing the speed and direction (velocity) at which the Antarctic ice sheet is flowing to the ocean is…

The Antarctic Ocean, sometimes called the Southern Ocean, is the watery belt surrounding Antarctica. It includes the great polar embayments of the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea, and the deep circumpolar belt of ocean between 50 and 60°S and the southern…

A magnesium-rich orthorhombic amphibole with perfect {210} cleavage and a color which varies from white to various shades of green and brown. It is a comparatively rare metamorphic mineral which occurs as slender prismatic needles, in fibrous…

An order of Paleozoic tetrapods that arose Carboniferous (Mississippian) (345 million years ago) and lasted until the Early Triassic (about 245 MYA). The term anthracosaurs (meaning “coal reptiles”) encompasses a range of genera that may not all be…

A fold in layered rocks in which the strata are inclined down and away from the axes. The simplest anticlines (see illustration) are symmetrical, but in more highly deformed regions they may be asymmetrical, overturned, or recumbent. Most anticlines…

Apatite is a generic name used to describe calcium phosphates with the simplified formula Ca10(PO4)6X2 (X = F, Cl, OH). Three end members form a complete solid-solution series involving the halide and hydroxyl anions, and these are the species…

A fine-grained, sugary-textured rock, generally of granitic composition; also any body composed of such rock. GraniteThe light-colored rock consists chiefly of quartz, microcline, or orthoclase perthite and sodic plagioclase, with small amounts of…

The smallest order of the class Amphibia, consisting of the wormlike caecilians. The order Apoda is sometimes called Gymnophiona. Its members are known commonly as caecilians, which are wormlike, legless amphibians with indistinct or even hidden…

A hydrous calcium potassium silicate containing fluorine. The composition is variable but approximates to KFCa4(Si2O5)4· 8H2O. It resembles the zeolites, with which it is sometimes classified, but differs from most zeolites in having no aluminum. It…

A subsurface zone that yields economically important amounts of water to wells. The term is synonymous with water-bearing formation. An aquifer may be porous rock, unconsolidated gravel, fractured rock, or cavernous limestone. Economically important…

An order of Paleozoic diapsid reptiles including the families Petrolacosauridae and Araeoscelidae. Members of these families resemble primitive modern lizards, such as the green iguana, in size and most body proportions, but are distinguished by…

One of three naturally occurring mineral forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The other forms (or polymorphs) are the abundant mineral calcite and the relatively rare mineral vaterite. Still other forms of calcium carbonate are known, but only as…

An extinct group of mainly Lower Cambrian marine sponges which, although lacking spicules, possessed an intricate, highly porous skeleton of calcite. It was probably a monophyletic group; that is, all representatives were derived from a single…

An order of extinct, free-sporing plants (cryptogams) that lived during the Late Devonian through Early Mississippian. The order includes the genera Archaeopteris (which has been extensively investigated), Actinoxylon, Actinopodium, Svalbardia,…

A genus of fossil birds in the extinct order Archaeopterygiformes, characterized by flight feathers like those of modern birds. Archaeopteryx is generally accepted as the oldest known fossil bird. It represents a unique snapshot of evolution; most…

The most diverse group of early Tertiary mammals are the archaic ungulates (condylarths). Although closely related, they are not a monophyletic group but, along with various extinct and extant mammals, form the taxon Ungulata (Fig. 1). They are…

A period of geologic time from about 4000 to 2500 million years ago (MYA). During the Archean Eon (Fig. 1) a large percentage of the Earth's continental crust formed, plate tectonics began, very warm climates and oceans existed, and life appeared on…

The establishment of the temporal sequence of prehistoric events. An event can be defined as a duration of time during which certain features came together to form a set, for example, when certain materials were formed into an object (manufacturing…

A diversified group of diapsid reptiles, comprising dinosaurs (and their descendants, birds), crocodylians, pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and various forms closely related to these groups. In the past, the primitive archosaurs from the Triassic…

Defined primarily by climatic rather than latitudinal criteria, arctic islands are those in the Northern Hemisphere where the mean temperature of the warmest month does not exceed 50°F (10°C) and that of the coldest is not above 32°F (0°C).…

The parallel of latitude approximately 66°30′ north of the Equator, or 23.5° from the North Pole. Named for the northern constellation Bear, the Arctic Circle has the same angular distance from the Equator as the inclination of the Earth's axis from…

The Arctic Ocean is an enclosed ocean, connected to the Pacific Ocean through Bering Strait and Bering Sea, and to the Atlantic Ocean through Fram Strait and the Barents, Greenland, and Norwegian seas (see illustration). The Arctic Ocean is the…

The arenaceous rocks (arenites) include all those clastic sedimentary rocks whose particle sizes range from 2 to 0.06 mm, or if silt is included, to 0.004 mm. Some arenites are composed primarily of carbonate particles, in which case they are called…

Clastic sedimentary rocks containing silt- or clay-sized particles that are less than 0.0625 mm and/or clay minerals. The argillaceous rocks (lutites) include shales, argillites, siltstones, and mudstones. They are the most abundant sedimentary rock…