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A model for offering computing as a commonly purchased service (that is, a utility) for storing data and providing access to computing resources (for example, programs) via the Internet, instead of on a local computer. The notion of a “cloud” of…

An artificial device that circumnavigates the Earth, receiving and retransmitting radio-frequency signals to multiple points on Earth. The communications hardware includes antennas, receivers, signal processing, and power amplifiers. The performance…

An approach to designing intelligent systems using mathematical algorithms. It consists of the fields of neural networks, evolutionary computation, and fuzzy sets (Fig. 1). Computational intelligence has been used to enable self-driving cars and…

The practice of designing computer systems. Just as the architecture of a building describes its overall structural concept and principal features, the architecture of a computer system consists of a description of the overall layout and major…

The process of protecting against threats to computing systems. A threat is an event that can cause harm to computers, data or programs, or computations (Fig. 1). A failure of computer security occurs because of a vulnerability or weakness in a…

Complex systems in which computers play a major role. While complex physical systems and sophisticated software systems can help people to lead healthier and more enjoyable lives, reliance on these systems can also result in loss of money, time, and…

The evaluation of performance, from the perspectives of both developers and users, of complex systems of hardware and software. Modern computer-based information systems have become increasingly complex because of networking, distributed computing,…

Programmable computers integrated with electrically powered machines that perform household chores. Domestic robots, also known as home or service robots, are essentially programmable computers integrated with electrically powered machines that…

A burst of electromagnetic energy. In a military context—and the subject of this article—an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a transient electromagnetic signal produced by a nuclear explosion in or above Earth's atmosphere (Fig. 1). Though not…