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A family of adenosine triphosphate–binding cassette (ABC) transmembrane proteins that use energy to transport various molecules across extracellular and intracellular membranes (cytoplasmic membranes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, or…

One of the major plant hormones that plays an important role in plant growth and development. Abscisic acid (ABA) is ubiquitous in vascular plants; the highest levels are found in young leaves and in developing fruits and seeds. Abscisic acid is…

The net movement (transport) of water and solutes from outside an organism to its interior. The unidirectional flow of materials into an animal from the environment generally takes place across the alimentary tract, the lungs, or the skin, and in…

A class of the phylum Radiozoa in the Actinopoda. The kingdom Protozoa contains 18 phyla. One of the parvkingdoms (a hierarchical classification between kingdom and superphylum that is controversial and not officially recognized as such) is the…

An order of ectoparasitic annelid worms consisting of one species, Acanthobdella peledina, which feeds on the dermal tissues of freshwater salmonid fishes in the far regions of Northern Europe. The order Acanthobdellida is taxonomically odd in that…

A distinct phylum of helminths (parasitic worms), commonly known as the spiny- or thorny-headed worms. The phylum Acanthocephala comprises three classes: Archiacanthocephala, Palaeacanthocephala, and Eoacanthocephala (a suggested fourth class,…

A taxon of marine protozoans belonging to the Acantharea. Acanthometrida (also known as Arthracanthida) is a taxonomic grouping (sometimes considered as an order or subclass) placed within the Acantharea (Acantharia) taxon. All members are…

A taxon of arachnids (traditionally considered a subclass of the Arachnida), comprising the mites and ticks. The Acari (also Acarina) consist of two superorders of small to minute arachnids. They have two body regions (Fig. 1)—a headlike gnathosoma…

A naturally occurring quaternary ammonium cation ester, with the formula CH3(O)COC2H4N(CH3)3+, which plays a prominent role in nervous system function as a neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine (Fig. 1) is an organic compound released from certain…

An order of actinopterygian (ray-finned) fishes represented by the sturgeons and paddlefishes. The order Acipenseriformes, the only extant order of about 10–12 orders of chondrosteans (subclass Chondrostei), probably originated from palaeonisciform…

A group of small, soft-bodied, ciliated worms with the form (“morph”) of acoel turbellarians. The Acoelomorpha is now ranked as a phylum, distinct from other turbellarian worms of the phylum Platyhelminthes. Its relation to other animals, however,…

An order of monocotyledonous angiosperms composed of a single genus, Acorus (sweet flag or sweet calamus), with two species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere. Formerly, Acorus was included in the aroid family, Araceae, but several lines of…

A viral disease of humans caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks and compromises the body's immune system. Individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) proceed through a spectrum of stages that ultimately…

An induced state in which antigens originally regarded as foreign become regarded as self by the immune system. Tolerance can be induced (tolerization) in all of the cells of the immune system, including T cells (also known as T lymphocytes), the…

A subtaxon of burrowing barnacles in the subclass Thecostraca. All members of the Acrothoracica burrow into shells of mollusks and thoracican barnacles, echinoderm tests, bryozoans, dead coral, and limestone. The entrance to the burrow is slitlike.…

An order of inarticulated brachiopods. Together with Lingulida and Siphonotretida, Acrotretida is one of the three orders of inarticulated brachiopods currently classified in class Lingulata in subphylum Linguliformea (phylum Brachiopoda).…

An order of the class Anthozoa, commonly known as the sea anemones. Actiniaria contains approximately 1100 species. They are strictly marine, occurring from northern to southern polar latitudes and inhabiting regions that range from the intertidal…

A genus of gram-negative, immotile and nonspore-forming, oval to rod-shaped, often pleomorphic bacteria which occur as parasites or pathogens in mammals (including humans), birds, and reptiles. They are facultatively aerobic, capable of fermenting…

A heterogeneous collection of bacteria with diverse ecologies and physiologies. The initial definition was based on their branching filamentous cellular morphology during a stage of the growth cycle. The name actinomycete means “ray fungus,” and for…

An order of Heliozoia. These protozoans are characterized by stiff arms radiating from the central cell mass. Each arm is supported internally by an array of microtubules which terminate on the surface of nuclei. The organisms are found in…

A class of Sarcodina; or in some modern schemes a superclass (Actinopoda) within the phylum Sarcomastigophora. Some of these protozoans have more or less permanent pseudopodia, composed of a central shaft of microtubules surrounded by a thin…

A class of teleostom fishes commonly known as the ray-finned fishes, which are distinguished by the structure of the paired fins that are supported by dermal rays. The class Actinopterygii comprises the subclasses Cladistia [Polypteriformes (bichirs…

A characteristic of an organism that makes it fit for its environment or for its particular way of life. Adaptation is a key biological process in organisms and can take many forms. Typically, adaptation refers to two mechanisms: (1) an adjustment…

Habituation to a specific practice, such as drinking alcoholic beverages or using drugs (for example, heroin, cocaine, or amphetamines), and disorders characterized by the chronic use of a drug, alcohol, or similar substance. Addiction and addictive…

A type of defective virus particle in which part of the genetic material of papovavirus SV40 is encased within an adenovirus protein coat (capsid). Human adenoviruses require human cells for their propagation; however, papovavirus SV40 can serve as…

A family of double-stranded DNA viruses, collectively known as adenoviruses, which are icosahedrally symmetric, usually found in the respiratory tract of the host species, and often associated with respiratory diseases. Members of the Adenoviridae…

A complex endocrine organ in proximity to the kidney. Adrenal gland tissue is present in all vertebrates from cyclostomes to placental mammals. The adrenal consists of two functionally distinct tissues: steroidogenic cells of mesodermal origin and…

Malfunctions of the paired adrenal glands. The adrenal glands can have congenital defects and can be damaged by infections and destructive tumors. Anencephaly, that is, gross underdevelopment of the brain in fetal life, leads to hypoplasia of the…

A bacterial genus in the family Vibrionaceae comprising oxidase-positive, facultatively anaerobic, monotrichously flagellated gram-negative rods. The mesophilic species are A. hydrophila, A. caviae, and A. sobria; the psychrophilic one is A.…

Aeronomy concentrates on the regions above the tropopause or upper part of the atmosphere. The region of the atmosphere below the tropopause is the site of most of the weather phenomena that so directly affect all life on the planet; this region has…

Any of a group of secondary metabolites produced by the common molds Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus that cause a toxic response in vertebrates when introduced in low concentration by a natural route. The group constitutes a type of mycotoxin.…

A highly fatal insect-borne viral disease of horses and mules, and a mild, subclinical disease in donkeys and zebras. African horse sickness occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, but incursions outside Africa have been documented. Dogs may be affected by…

A variety of chalcedonic quartz that is distinguished by the presence of color banding in curved or irregular patterns (Fig. 1). Most agate used for ornamental purposes is composed of two or more tones or intensities of brownish-red, often…

A reaction in which suspended particles are aggregated or clumped. It occurs upon the admixture of another type of particle, a change in the composition of the suspending fluid, or the addition of a soluble agent that acts as a bridge between two or…

A substance that will cause a clumping of particles such as bacteria or erythrocytes. Of major importance are the specific or immune agglutinins, which are antibodies that will agglutinate bacteria containing the corresponding antigens on their…

An age-contingent reduction in physiological function and activity, with a concomitant increase in mortality rate and a diminution in reproductive rate. Aging is the process of becoming older, which is influenced by genetic and environmental…

A large, rabbit-sized rodent, belonging to the family Dasyproctidae and inhabiting South America and Central America, which is well adapted for speed because of its elongated hind legs. The agouti is a large rodent that resembles the rabbit or hare…

A sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar mineral whose composition extends over the range Ab100An0 to Ab90An10, where Ab (= albite) is NaAlSi3O8 and An (= anorthite) is CaAl2Si2O8 (see illustration). Albite occurs in crustal igneous rocks as a major…

An order of actinopterygian fishes in the subdivision Elopomorpha, along with Elopiformes, Anguilliformes, and Saccopharyngiformes, all of which have a leptocephalous larval stage. Albuliformes, comprising three families, eight genera, and 30…

A plasma protein produced by the liver that maintains fluid balance in the blood and transports fatty acids in the plasma and interstitial fluid. It is the most abundant protein in human serum, and one of the first discovered and earliest studied…

The repeated and/or excessive use of alcohol (ethanol) that continues despite negative physical, psychiatric, or social consequences. Alcoholism is characterized by consuming alcohol more often, in larger amounts, or over longer periods than…

An order of the class Anthozoa (phylum Cnidaria), containing 2500–3000 species, commonly referred to as soft corals, sea fans, sea whips, and precious coral. Members of the Alcyonacea are strictly marine. They occur from northern to southern polar…

Light emissions in the upper atmosphere from elemental lithium, potassium, and especially sodium. These alkali metals are present in the upper atmosphere at altitudes from about 50 to 62 mi (80 to 100 km) and are very efficient in resonant…

A fluid-filled sac- or sausagelike, extraembryonic membrane lying between the outer chorion and the inner amnion and yolk sac of the embryos of reptiles, birds, and mammals. The allantois eventually fills up the space of the extraembryonic coelom in…

Any of a number of alternative forms of a gene. Allele is a contraction of allelomorph, a term that William Bateson used to designate one of the alternative forms of a unit showing mendelian segregation. New alleles arise from existing ones by…

Altered reactivity in humans and other animals to allergens (substances foreign to the body that trigger an allergic response) induced by exposure through injection, inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. An allergy (or allergic reaction; Fig. 1)…

A large aquatic reptile of the family Alligatoridae. Alligators belong to the family Alligatoridae in the reptilian order Crocodylia (Crocodilia). Common usage generally restricts the name alligator to the two extant species of the genus Alligator.…

The study of changes in the characteristics of organisms with body size. Characteristics such as body parts or timing of reproductive events do not necessarily change in direct proportion to body size, and the ways in which they change relative to…

One of the four subclasses of Mammalia, containing a single order, the Multituberculata. The Allotheria first appeared in the Late Jurassic and survived well into the Cenozoic, a period of at least 100,000,000 years. Fossils are known from North…

Vicugna pacos, a member of the camel family (Camelidae), which has been domesticated for more than 2000 years and is economically important for its long, fine wool. The alpaca (Vicugna pacos; formerly, Lama pacos) [see illustration] belongs to the…