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The techniques and methods used in plowing, harrowing, planting, tilling, harvesting, drying, storing, and processing of agricultural crops. Agricultural soil and crop practices seek to keep the quality and fertility of soils at high levels so as to…

The dried, unripe fruits (berries) of a small, tropical, evergreen tree, Pimenta dioica (P. officinalis), of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). Allspice (see illustration), which is also known as Jamaica pepper, is a native of the West Indies and parts…

Prunus dulcis (also known as Prunus amygdalus or Amygdalus communis), a small deciduous tree of the order Rosales that is closely related to the peach and other stone fruit trees, and grown widely for its ellipsoidal edible seeds. The fruit of the…

Determination of the relative or absolute age of materials or objects by measurement of the degree of racemization of the amino acids present. With the exception of glycine, the amino acids found in proteins can exist in two isomeric forms called d-…

Substances suitable for the nutrition of animals, including livestock and poultry feed and pet food. Animal feed includes plant and animal products and by-products as well as vitamin and mineral supplements. Livestock and poultry feed In formulating…

An annual herb, Pimpinella anisum (family Apiaceae), whose fruit is used to provide food flavoring and to make a distilled oil. Anise is one of the earliest aromatics mentioned in literature. The anise plant (see illustration) is an annual herb that…

The observation, measurement, and explanation of human variability in time and space. Anthropology is a science concerned with the interrelations of the biological, cultural, geographical, and historical aspects of humankind, including modern human…

The systematic quantitative representation of the human body. Anthropometric techniques are used to measure the absolute and relative variability in size and shape of the human body. Instrumentation Depending on the objective, anthropometric…

The establishment of the temporal sequence of prehistoric events. An event can be defined as a duration of time during which certain features came together to form a set, for example, when certain materials were formed into an object (manufacturing…

Substitutes for sugar (sucrose) in foods and beverages that provide intense sweetness with few to no calories. Artificial sweeteners are sometimes called low-calorie sweeteners, high-intensity sweeteners, noncaloric sweeteners, non-nutritive…

A white, crystalline compound, 1-aspartyl-1-phenylalanine methyl ester (APM), with formula (1). It is slightly soluble in water. Its sweetening properties were discovered accidentally in 1965 when the compound, a dipeptide, was produced as an…

Any member of an adaptively diverse group of extinct hominin species that inhabited Africa between approximately 4.2 million years ago (MYA) and 1.2 MYA. The term australopith is used in preference to the term australopithecine, which is sometimes…

A fermented beverage produced from grain. Beer is a generic term used to describe alcoholic beverages made from cereal grains, especially barley (Fig. 1), in the form of malt. Ale, lager, porter, and stout are different kinds of beer made by…

The study of skeletal remains from archeological sites by biological (or physical) anthropologists. Bioarcheology differs in several ways from traditional skeletal research. Previous work focused on individual case studies (for example, individuals…

An illness produced by the exotoxin of Clostridium botulinum and occasionally other bacterial members of the genus Clostridium, and characterized by paralysis and other neurological abnormalities. Botulism is a serious (though rare) condition caused…

A food product made by churning cream. In the United States, butter is not defined by Standard of Identity in the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act as are most foods, but instead it was defined in 1923 by an act of Congress. Butter must contain at least…

The principal protein fraction of cows' milk. It accounts for about 80% of the protein content and is present in concentrations of 2.5–3.2%. The term casein, derived from the Latin word for cheese, caseus, was introduced into the scientific…

A dairy product made by selectively concentrating major milk components. Cheese is generally rich in flavor and contains high-quality nutrients. There are many varieties of cheese, all produced in the following general manner: Raw or pasteurized…

Products derived from the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao, which grows within a narrow belt along both sides of the Equator. There are three basic varieties: Criollo, which was native to Central and South America; Forastero, which…

A tropical evergreen shrub or small tree of the genus Coffea (family Rubiaceae), a native of northeast Africa and adjacent southwest Asia, cultivated for the seeds (coffee beans) of its fruit. Members of the genus Coffea (Fig. 1) grow mainly between…

Keeping perishable products at low temperatures in order to extend storage life. Cold storage vastly retards the processes responsible for the natural deterioration of the quality of such products at higher temperatures. Time and temperature are the…

Zea mays, also known as maize, a grain crop grown for its edible seeds (kernels). Corn (Zea mays) [Fig. 1] is an important cereal grass plant belonging to the order Poales (formerly Cyperales). The top corn-producing countries are the United…

The adaptation of an animal or plant through breeding in captivity to a life intimately associated with and advantageous to humans. Domesticated plants and animals differ genetically and morphologically from their wild counterparts, often in ways…

Important functional components of foods, belonging to a group of biological substance called lipids. Fats and oils are soluble in organic solvents such as hexane, petroleum ether, alcohol, and chloroform. They are insoluble in water. Fats and oils…

An enzymatic transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of a gas. Fermentation is a chemical transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, to alcohol or organic acids,…