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A common medicine used to relieve mild to moderate pain and reduce fever. Acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol), or paracetamol, is a white crystalline compound with the molecular formula C8H9NO2 (Fig. 1). It is a member of the aniline family of…

A naturally occurring quaternary ammonium cation ester, with the formula CH3(O)COC2H4N(CH3)3+, which plays a prominent role in nervous system function as a neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine (Fig. 1) is an organic compound released from certain…

As social animals, humans tend to form groups that can range in size from a few individual members to entire nation-states. Historically and through the present day, human groups frequently come into conflict. A noted feature of human intergroup…

A disease of the nervous system characterized by a progressive dementia that leads to profound impairment in cognition and behavior. Dementia occurs in a number of brain diseases where the impairment in cognitive abilities represents a decline from…

An ongoing current event in which a large number of living species are threatened with extinction or are going extinct because of environmentally destructive human activities. The Earth is presently in the midst of a mass extinction event. In the…

A neurodevelopmental condition that impairs the way that a person relates to and communicates with other people. Persons with autism have difficulties with social communication and interaction. They also can have unusual behaviors, such as…

The part of the nervous system that controls visceral (internal organ) functions of the body. The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral nervous system, or PNS, which, along with the central nervous system, or CNS, represents the…

The ongoing lower level of species extinction intensity occurring between episodes of mass extinctions. Extinction is a normal part of the history of life. Out of every 100 species that have ever lived on Earth, 99 are no longer in existence.…

The function and transport of the bicarbonate ion for maintaining the acid level (pH) throughout the body for stable physiological processes; disfunction of bicarbonate transport results in disease. Bicarbonate (HCO3−) is a small inorganic negative…

Humans have used dried bovine dung (manure) as a fuel source since prehistoric times. In India, for example, many people burn cow or buffalo dung for cooking fuel. This bioresource provides a low-cost fuel as well as an efficient means of waste…

Any of the self-sustained circadian (approximately 24-hour) rhythms that regulate daily activities, including sleep and wakefulness. A biological clock is any physiologic factor that functions in regulating innate organismal rhythms. Biological…