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Humans have used dried bovine dung (manure) as a fuel source since prehistoric times. In India, for example, many people burn cow or buffalo dung for cooking fuel. This bioresource provides a low-cost fuel as well as an efficient means of waste…

Neuroscientists have long sought to explain how the brain correctly recognizes a stimulus despite the stimulus appearing under different circumstances with widely variable external factors. For example, with regard to olfactory stimuli, humans can…

Renowned as adept fliers and as some of the first insects to have ever developed wings, with a fossil record going back more than 300 million years, dragonflies (class Odonata) have long interested scientists across interdisciplinary lines. A recent…

Researchers are learning more about how plants respond to "alarm signals" released by other plants that are under attack by herbivores. To warn conspecifics about predators, many animals issue alarms by vocalizing or emitting odors. In the case of…

Studies have shown that all classes of vertebrates—and even some invertebrate species—have the cognitive ability to discriminate among different quantities. For example, many kinds of studied animals can distinguish specific numbers of objects in…

Among the non-human animals that can be infected with—and become sick from—humans who have the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 are deer, mink, hyenas, pigs, ferrets, dogs, cats, and primates such as rhesus macaque monkeys, baboons, and…

To bolster food security in a warming world, engineers are developing a coating that could better protect seeds, such as beans, from drought in semiarid regions. The coating mimics a mucilage-based hydrogel produced naturally by some seeds, such as…

Bats are members of the order Chiroptera, which is the second-largest order of living mammals. The geographic distribution of these flying mammals is tremendous as well, ranging from the limit of trees in the Northern Hemisphere to the southern tips…

Although cats are the number one lethal threat to birds, collisions with building glass are not far behind. The number of birds killed each year by glass collisions worldwide is estimated to be in the billons. In the United States, the U.S. Fish &…

Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) exclusively consume milkweed plants (genus Asclepia) both for nutrition and to help deter predators. Milkweed plants contain toxins that accumulate in the butterfly larva, or caterpillars, as the insects feed;…

Genealogists and anthropologists have long disputed the provenance of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). Although genetic analyses and fossil evidence indicate that the domestic dog descended from the gray wolf (Canis lupus), the exact location…

Approximately 75% of flowering plants—including about a third of agricultural food crops—depend on the distribution of pollen by an array of animals known collectively as pollinators. These animals include insects such as bees and wasps…

The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)—one of three species of hyenas found in Africa—is a highly social mammal that lives in large groups, or clans, containing at least 90 individuals. The social organization of spotted hyenas is more complex than the…

In the future, will global demand for coffee outstrip supply? The International Coffee Organization thinks so, based on droughts in Central America, crop-destroying freezing weather in Brazil, and global climate change. In general, coffee is a very…

The American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was once on the brink of extinction in North America. As a result of concerted conservation efforts, including the elimination of use of the pesticide DDT in the United States in 1972, the bald…

The taxonomic classification of whales continues to evolve as marine biologists glean new insights from investigations of the largest of all animals on Earth. Two recent whale discoveries—one concerning a new species, and the other dealing with…

Forest fires are becoming more problematic across the globe. For example, climate change has extended fire season in the United States by about 80 days since 1970 because of extreme weather events, such as prolonged drought, according to the U.S.…

The fossil record of sharks (members of the subclass Elasmobranchii within the class Chondrichthyes, or cartilaginous fishes) dates back more than 420 million years. Over the course of this time, sharks have been among the top predators found in the…

An investigation of 890-million-year-old limestone rocks excavated from the mountains of Canada's Northwest Territories has revealed possible evidence of the oldest animal life on Earth. Prior to this study, the oldest undisputed fossils of animal…

With a fossil record dating to the start of the Mesozoic era, approximately 250 million years ago, the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) is the sole extant representative of the reptilian order Rhynchocephalia. This unique reptile has an unusually long…

A clade of ancient birds known as lithornithids (chicken-sized, long-beaked birds), who lived approximately 40–70 million years ago, possessed a unique vibrotactile bill-tip organ that allowed these birds to detect vibrations in the ground. The…

Wildfires are a natural phenomenon in many ecosystems, including forests along the U.S. Pacific West Coast, as natural fires serve to rejuvenate ecological communities. However, from mid-August through mid-September 2020, forests in California,…

Wildfires, also termed bushfires or forest fires, are currently devastating large swaths of land in Australia. Detrimental ecologic consequences of these uncontrolled combustions of forest fuels and vegetation are numerous. One of the most serious…

The American beech (Fagus grandifolia) is native to forest regions east of the Mississippi River and is a key tree species in the United States. In particular, it is very abundant from Ohio to the New England states. The tree is also found in the…

Many questions concerning the sustainable production of biofuels have emerged over recent years in terms of land and water use, pollution from fertilizer and pest-control chemicals, greenhouse-gas production, net energy production, and whether…

The world’s oceans and coasts provide a natural sink for excess carbon in the atmosphere. Scientists refer to carbon that is captured and stored this way as blue carbon. Well-known blue-carbon examples include mangroves and salt marshes—wetland…

Mucus produced by the common garden snail (Helix aspersa) is green. The slime is not actually green in color but is “green” in terms of its environmentally friendly chemistry. It turns out that this snail’s mucus has chemical properties as a…

Life on Earth has been punctuated by a number of catastrophic mass extinctions throughout history. During these events, diverse taxonomic groups collapsed from the relatively rapid and widespread extinction of large numbers of species. Precipitated…

Conservationists are alarmed by significant reductions in insect populations worldwide. Based on recent biodiversity surveys and entomological studies, scientists estimate that more than 40% of the world's insect species (class Insecta, phylum…

Of the three extant elephant species, two inhabit Africa: the African bush or savanna elephant, Loxodonta africana; and the smaller African forest elephant, L. cyclotis. The African bush elephant is the largest living land mammal and is primarily…

All of the many diverse breeds of dogs, including both domestic and wild dogs (wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, and dingoes), belong to the genus Canis in the mammalian family Canidae. One intriguing example of an obscure wild dog is the New Guinea…

Scientists have identified the earliest known fossil of a modern bird. The fossil remains—comprising an almost-complete skull and a few limb bones embedded in rock—were discovered in a limestone quarry in Belgium. Estimated to be approximately 66.7…

The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) is the world's largest living marsupial carnivore. For tens of thousands of years, this fierce animal could be found throughout the continent of Australia, as well as inhabiting the island of Tasmania.…

Members of the order Pristiophoriformes within the vertebrate subphylum comprise an unusual group of sharks. Collectively known as sawsharks, these marine fishes are distinguishable from other elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, and rays) by a number of…

Many trees in forests worldwide rely on natural fires to create growing conditions necessary to perpetuate the ecosystem, or to stimulate germination. However, for more than 100 years, humans have been suppressing frequent natural low-intensity…

The Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) is a remarkable evergreen, treelike plant found only in the southwestern United States. It was named by Mormon settlers in the early 1800s. Upon seeing the limbs of this plant branching upwards to heaven, the…

Collectively, members of the class Amphibia are facing massive reductions in total numbers, and the overall biodiversity of amphibians across the globe is under threat. Scientists have determined that global climate change and habitat destruction…

It has been a long-held belief that, as a result of hunting habits, early humans were partly or even primarily responsible for the decline and eventual extinction of most of the largest mammalian species that inhabited ancient Africa. These large…

The critically endangered northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) is a subspecies of white rhino that is on the brink of complete extinction, with only two individuals left in captivity and no known members reported in the wild. The…

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)—the global authority on the status of the natural world—estimates that approximately 5–10% of the world's insect species (class Insecta, phylum Arthropoda) are threatened and facing…

Eastern equine encephalitis is a rare infectious viral disease that primarily affects humans and equines (horses, mules, donkeys, and zebras). It is caused by a mosquito-borne virus (arbovirus) that is native to the eastern half of the United…

Photosynthesis is a key natural process utilized by plants and is necessary for proper plant growth. Specifically, photosynthesis uses light to manufacture chemical compounds, including organic compounds—primarily carbohydrates—that are derived from…

All freshwater comes from precipitation over land, which is distributed on Earth as blue and green water. Blue water—that is, surface and groundwater—is stored as freshwater in lakes, streams, ice, and snow, as well as below ground. Green water is…

The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), a type of monitor lizard belonging to the reptilian order Squamata, is a tremendously powerful carnivorous predator. The creature is indigenous to a small number of Indonesian islands, including Komodo, and…

Marburg hemorrhagic fever (also referred to as Marburg virus disease) is a rare, exotic viral disease that affects both humans and nonhuman primates. The reservoir hosts of Marburg virus are African (or Egyptian) fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus),…

A report by a team of conservation biologists concludes that the total number of birds in North America has dropped precipitously since 1970. Annual surveys monitoring the biodiversity and abundance of bird populations across the North American…

Pesticides—including insecticides and herbicides—are chemical products used to control, reduce, or eliminate organisms that are harmful to cultivated plants. However, the use of pesticides on plants that provide foods for human consumption is often…

The killer whale, or orca, is a predatory cetacean typically found in cold ocean waters. With its easily recognizable black body and distinct white patches over the eyes and around the belly, the orca is a top (apex) predator in the marine…

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is the most widely distributed jackal in the world, populating widely diverse habitats across extensive ranges. In particular, this canine predator occupies large areas of northern and eastern Africa, the Middle…

More apples are consumed worldwide than any other temperate-zone tree fruit. Apples are eaten fresh, processed into jellies and preserves, cooked in pies and pastries, and made into sauces. Therefore, the cultivation of the trees (genus Malus) that…

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the predominant cannabinoid (chemical constituent) of the more than 100 cannabinoids found in the hemp variety of the plant Cannabis sativa. There are preliminary, yet unproven, claims that CBD may offer benefits for treating…

The Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis), also known as the bush tick, is a troublesome parasitic species and is an important vector of disease agents. (Note that vectors are capable of biologically transferring a pathogen from one…

Neonicotinoid insecticides are the most used insecticide worldwide and have been linked to the decline of pollinator insects. In 2018, the European Union banned the outdoor use of three neonicotinoid insecticides: clothianidin, imidacloprid, and…

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a baffling detrimental condition in colonies of honeybees (Apis mellifera). It is characterized by a rapid loss of the adult bee population, with an absence of dead bees in and around affected colonies. No single…

Conservationists have determined that the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is disappearing much more rapidly than previously thought. Since 1999, the total number of Bornean orangutans declined by at least 148,000 individuals. The chief culprits…

The warming temperatures attributed to global climate change are making it more difficult for sea turtle populations to survive. As a result of the unusual developmental processes found in many reptiles, including some species of turtles, the sex of…

The prevalence of diseases caused by ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas that feed on the blood of humans has increased dramatically. Over a 13-year span (the years 2004 through 2016), the incidence of tick-, mosquito-, and flea-borne diseases in humans…

The evolutionary transition of certain dinosaurs into modern birds has long been an active area of paleontological research. Because the members of the class Aves are living representatives of theropod dinosaurs, paleontologists have sought fossil…

In the fall of 2014 and early winter of 2015, an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 seabirds known as Cassin's auklets (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) died along the Pacific Coast from California to British Columbia, Canada. Researchers have now reported the…

Neonicotinoids (also termed neonics) comprise a class of insecticides and pesticides that chemically resemble nicotine. They are the most widely used insecticides in the world and are deployed by plant and crop farmers because these chemical…

The Northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni)—one of two white rhino subspecies—is functionally extinct. Officially, this subspecies is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) as…

A newly identified reptilian fossil has pushed back the phylogenetic (evolutionary) family tree of Squamata [the dominant order of living reptiles, comprising lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians (mostly limbless lizards that resemble worms)] by 75…

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus; also known as the Spanish lynx), which inhabits the shrublands of southwestern Spain and Portugal, was on the verge of extinction at the beginning of the twenty-first century. At that time, this wild cat species was…

To better understand the nutritional effects (health benefits), chemical composition, growing conditions, and shelf life of microgreens, a team of researchers reviewed the science behind them in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry…

It is estimated that 1 gram of soil can be inhabited by up to 109 microorganisms and approximately 60,000 bacterial species. Moreover, soil harbors a vast reservoir of antimicrobial agents, and soil-dwelling bacteria have played a key role in the…

Biocontrol, or biological control, is the natural or applied regulation of populations of pest organisms—especially insects—through the role or use of natural enemies. In other words, biocontrol uses living organisms to reduce and eliminate pest…

The biotechnology used in the creation of genetically modified crops is being expanded to encompass the bioengineering of plants that contain therapeutically important proteins and molecules that can be utilized in the manufacturing of…

In 2016, animal researchers and geneticists concluded that the giraffe (genus Giraffa), once thought to consist of a single extant species (Giraffa camelopardalis), comprises four distinct species: the northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis),…

Bananas (Musa genus) are one of the world's most valuable and popular primary agricultural commodities. However, the most prevalent naturally occurring bananas, that is, those of the Cavendish variety, are being severely decimated by Panama disease…

Global climate change affects all areas of the Earth, with some regions experiencing greater impacts than others. In particular, the Arctic treeline—that is, the southern limit of the Arctic Bioclimate Zone—is being affected to various degrees by…

Survival prospects for the honeybee (Apis mellifera) look increasingly promising as entomologists and beekeepers have reported a dramatic increase in the population numbers of these essential insects in North America and Europe. Honeybees, which are…

Forests absorb and store carbon. If this ability is hampered, then levels of atmospheric carbon will increase and global temperatures will rise, leading to potentially drastic climatic changes. In particular, deforestation (the permanent elimination…

Through study of the fossil record, paleontologists can frequently identify when an ancient species or taxon (a grouping of related organisms) first emerged in evolutionary history. (Paleontologists often prefer the term taxon over species because…

Molting (shedding or ecdysis) of the outer cuticular layer of the body is a process vital to arthropods, including insects and crustaceans. This profound endocrinological and physiological process has undoubtedly helped ensure the evolutionary…

A new species of orangutan has been identified in the Batang Toru forest ecosystem in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. Genetic and morphological evidence, as well as behavioral data, have confirmed that the Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis) is…

Although the survival of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia; formerly, Uncia uncia), also known as the ounce, is precarious, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has assigned an upgraded…

New regulations by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that went into effect on January 1, 2017, banned the use of antibiotics as feed supplements to help livestock and poultry grow faster. The new rules, prohibiting the over-the-counter…

Because of nutrient-poor soil and the high cost of fertilizer, farmers in parts of Africa often produce only one-fifth to one-tenth as much corn (maize) per hectare as farmers in the United States do. Over time, farming in Africa and elsewhere in…

Wildfires are known to emit large amounts of gaseous and particulate pollutants. In an effort to identify and quantify these pollutants, researchers took their instruments to the skies where they sampled and analyzed smoke plumes from aircraft…

A magnitude 5.1 nuclear test was detected 376 km (234 mi) NE of Pyongyang, North Korea (DPRK) on January 6, 2015 at 10:30 a.m. local time (01:30 UTC), according to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The event was picked up at seismic stations around…

The dance language of honeybees (Apis mellifera) is a unique form of animal behavior and communication that was discovered by the zoologist Karl von Frisch (1886–1982) in the 1920s, which he continued to study through the 1960s and for which he was…

Many trees enjoy extremely long lives in comparison to humans and other animals. Yet one group of trees, the bristlecone pines, stands out as the most ancient of all, with individual trees that commonly live for thousands of years, including one…

In 2016, the eastern lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri), also known as Grauer's gorilla, was identified as critically endangered because of the precipitous drop in its population by more than 77% over the past few decades. The critically…

Between 2004 and 2014, the total phosphorus content of lakes and streams in the contiguous (lower 48) United States rose, according to surveys by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported in the journal Environmental Science &…

Biochar is charcoal made from biomass (organic matter used for energy). A process called pyrolysis, in which biomass is heated to high temperature in the absence of oxygen, produces biochar along with combustible gases (syngas) and oils (bio-oils).…

Concrete and steel have been the materials of choice for constructing high-rise buildings for over 100 years. Definitions of high-rise buildings vary, but according to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association high-rise buildings are 23 meters…

The species diversity and ultimate survival of amphibians, one of the major groupings of vertebrate animals, face tremendous challenges today for reasons that are still not entirely understood. Since the 1980s, the pace of amphibian extinction has…

Caenorhabditis elegans is a small, unsegmented, transparent member of the order Rhabditida in the phylum Nematoda (Nemata). Measuring approximately 1 millimeter in length in its adult form, this roundworm is typically found in soil, often feeding on…

Much of coastal and southern California has a Mediterranean climate, which is characterized by cooler, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers. Only drought-resistant plant species can survive without irrigation in this type of climate. Turf grass,…

Lobsters are bottom-dwelling decapod crustaceans making up the family Nephropidae (also called Homaridae). The most familiar and commercially important lobsters are large-clawed ones possessing a hard protective exoskeleton and belonging to the…

Two varieties of apples that have been genetically engineered not to turn brown when cut or bruised were cleared in February and March of 2015 for growth and sale in Canada by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) and Health Canada (HC) and in…

The use of certain insects to attack and destroy pests—predominantly other insects—is an intriguing and increasingly popular natural method of biological insect control. In particular, the ichneumon wasp is employed for this purpose to control pest…

The saiga (Saiga tatarica, order Artiodactyla) is a rare nomadic antelope species that inhabits the steppes, semiarid deserts, and plains of central Asia. Its most strikingly distinctive feature is its large humped nose or proboscis, which hangs…

Researchers have discovered an antimalarial compound that shows promise for killing the deadliest malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, at multiple stages of its life cycle. High-throughput screening of more than 4700 molecules yielded an…

One of the most remarkable features of the sea (marine) turtles that inhabit the tropical and subtropical waters of the world is their homing ability. Throughout the year, sea turtles swim huge distances, often more than 1600 kilometers (1000…

A recently discovered group of crustaceans called yeti crabs (genus Kiwa, order Decapoda) have added to the number of extraordinary and previously unknown species inhabiting the harsh, inhospitable environment around hydrothermal vents on the deep…

One of history’s worst agricultural catastrophes was the great Irish potato famine of 1845–1849, which killed more than a million people in Ireland, forced the emigration of 1.5 million others, and fueled resentments between the Catholic and…

Dogs belong to the mammalian family Canidae. Members of this carnivorous group comprise domestic dogs, wolves, wild dogs, coyotes, dingoes, foxes, and jackals. Canis lupus familiaris (also referred to as Canis familiaris) is the species name given…

Ethylene, CH2=CH2, the most-produced organic chemical in the world, is used to make hundreds of products. The major product is polyethylene, but other important ones include poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, antifreeze (ethylene glycol), adhesives,…

The horse (Equus ferus caballus) is an odd-toed hooved mammal (ungulate) belonging to the family Equidae in the order Perissodactyla. The vast majority of horses today are domesticated animals, with more than 300 breeds found throughout the world.…