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from article Precipitation (chemistry)
Precipitation of calcium fluoride. (Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education/Stephen Frisch)
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from article Polystyrene
Polystyrene foam. (Credit: Raywoo/123RF)
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from article Vacuum fusion
Vacuum-fusion methods of analysis.
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from article Soil chemistry
Proper soil chemistry helps a green seedling to sprout out from the soil. Soil chemistry controls the availability of plant nutrients within the soil and thus influences plant growth. (Credit: amenic181/Shutterstock)
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from article Soil chemistry
Extensive chemical weathering can remove essential minerals and elements from soil. Typically, only the most insoluble compounds remain in the soil. For example, iron oxides may persist, imparting a reddish-brown color to the soil. (Credit: Stephen…
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from article Soil chemistry
Factors influencing the chemistry of a soil solution. (Credit: Based on an original illustration created by J. F. Hodson)
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from article Supercritical-fluid chromatography
Block diagram of supercritical-fluid chromatograph. With some detectors (for example, flame ionization), the pressure/flow restrictor is mounted in the detector.
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from article Supercritical-fluid chromatography
High-resolution separation of the oligomers of a methyl silicone by pressure-programmed supercritical-fluid chromatography; each peak in the chromatogram is due to an oligomer with one more Si(CH3)2O group than the previous peak. Pressure is held at…
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from article Decision theory
Decision tree for the problem given in the text. Numbers at nodes represent time past alarm (7:00 A.M.), and numbers at branches refer to the decision mode or state of nature.
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from article Decision theory
From of a decision matrix. Oij = outcome corresponding to the interaction of a strategy (Si) and a state of nature (Nj).
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from article Decision theory
Decision tree structure to determine the subjective utility of lottery outcomes.
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from article Decision theory
Hypothetical subjective utility curves.
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from article Calcium
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from article Calcium
Calcium carbonate towers, called tufa, in the saline waters of Mono Lake, California, United States. (Credit: Steve Heap/Shutterstock)
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from article Californium
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from article Quantum chemistry
Methylenecyclopropane structure.
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from article Quantum chemistry
Comparison of self-consistent-field transition states for the HONC → HOCN reaction using four different basis sets.
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from article Quantum chemistry
Example of a sizable molecule for which complete DFT geometrical optimization with a substantial basis set became routine in 1998.
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from article Berkelium
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from article Catastrophe theory
Cusp catastrophe surface for the response function Vab as a function of (a,b) at a critical point. Paths A, B, and C are labeled.
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from article Catastrophe theory
Paths A, B, and C from Fig. 1, with points 1–10 marked. The response function Vab has the same values at (1,3,5) and at (2,4,10).
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from article Catastrophe theory
Paths that exhibit features of catastrophe theory. (a) Path on curve C showing a jump in the response function. (b) Path using curves A and B which shows hysteresis. No change in potential energy Vab is required to go from 1 to 3 or from 2 to 4. The…
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from article X-ray fluorescence analysis
Scheme of a crystal spectrometer for x-ray fluorescence. Photons from an x-ray tube excite the sample elements at top left. A parallel beam of fluorescent radiation is filtered out by a collimator and hits a single crystal under angle Θ. Only…
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from article X-ray fluorescence analysis
Atomic shell of iron (Z = 26). Left: initial ionization of the L3-shell, followed by an L3←M5 transition. Right: initial vacancy in the K-shell, followed by a K←L3 transition. The new (secondary) vacancy in L3 is filled by L3←M5. This scheme repeats…
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from article X-ray fluorescence analysis
Measured relative intensities (blue dots, not linear due to interelement effects) and "corrected" values (orange, linear relationship) for Cr-Ni-Fe alloys. Examples of corrections are shown by arrows. (Credit: Michael Mantler, based on data from S.…
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from article Cerium
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from article Chelation
Formulas of hydrated cadmium(II) ion, two cadmium(II) complexes, and two cadmium(II) chelates.
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from article Chelation
Heme, a tetradentate chelate of iron(II).
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from article Chelation
Structural formula of anion of EDTA, a sexadentate ligand.
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from article Chelation
Structural formula of NTA anion, a quadridentate ligand.
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from article Chelation
Structural formula of anion of HBED, a sexadentate ligand.
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from article Chelation
“Tetraphos,” a quadridentate ligand.
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from article Chelation
Chelating ligands indicating the types of donor groups available for coordination.
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from article Chelation
Compounds forming intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
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from article Chelation
Structure of a chelated copper compound.
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from article Chelation
Metal chelates containing four-, five-, and six-membered rings.
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from article Chelation
Optical isomers of chelate complexes.
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from article Chelation
Formula for an optically inactive nonchelate.
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from article Osmosis
Osmosis process. (Credit: McGraw-Hill Education)
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from article Osmosis
Concept of osmotic pressure. (Credit: McGraw-Hill Education)
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from article Extrapolation
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from article Sphere
Segment of a sphere formed by intersection of two parallel planes with sphere.
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from article Electrolysis
Electrolysis cell in which the electrolyte is a solution of sodium chloride.
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from article Ultracentrifuge
Diagram of an electrically driven analytical ultracentrifuge. (Beckman Instruments)
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from article Ultracentrifuge
Analytical rotor. (Beckman Instruments)
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from article Ultracentrifuge
Fixed-angle preparative rotor and tubes. (Beckman Instruments)
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from article Animal testing
Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species in animal testing and research. (Credit: Dolores Bonaparte)
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from article Animal testing
The use of animals in biomedical research remains essential, but the handling of these sentient beings must be done humanely to minimize and prevent animal harm. (Credit: U.S. Department of Agriculture)
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from article Triple point
Phase diagram for water, showing gas, liquid, and several solid (ice) phases; triple points at A, B, and C. The pressure scale changes at 101 kilopascals from logarithmic scale at low pressure to linear at high pressure.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Macrocyclic structures. (a) Two crown ethers. (b) A basic structure for three cryptands. (c) A lariat ether. (d) All-aliphatic spherand. (e) All-aromatic spherand.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Macrocycles with various structural features. (a) Bicyclic cryptand (ditopic receptor). (b) Calix[6]arene; R represents a functional group. (c) Cavitand. (d) Carcerand. (e) Cyclophanes.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Tetramers. (a) Resorcinarene having the rctt conformation. (b) Pyrogallolarene having the rccc conformation.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
The metal cation is the guest and the organic structure is the host in (a) 18-crown-6 complex of potassium cation (K+) and (b) sodium (Na+) complexed by a calix[4]arene.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Complexing species. (a) Dibinaphtho-22-crown-6. (b) R,R-dibinaphtho-22-crown-6 complex of phenethylammonium chloride.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Affinities for anions and cations shown for (a) pyrrole and (b) furan-derived cyclic tetramers.
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from article Macrocyclic compound
Amphiphiles. (a) Crown ether-steroid amphiphile. (b) Crown ether bolaamphiphile.
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from article Marcus equation
Free-energy plot for an electron-transfer reaction with zero standard free-energy change (an electron self-exchange reaction).
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from article Marcus equation
Free-energy plot for an electron-transfer reaction when the free-energy change (|Δ G °|) is less than the reorganization parameter (λ).
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from article Lead
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from article Lead
Galena (lead sulfide, PbS) is an ore mined for lead. (Credit: USGS)
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from article Oxygen toxicity
The dual effect of oxygen on biologic activity. Organisms that avail themselves of the enormous metabolic advantages provided by dioxygen (O2) must defend themselves against its toxicity. (Copyright © McGraw Hill)
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from article Hyperbolic geometry
Examples of simple hyperbolic knots and links. (a) Figure-8 knot. (b) Whitehead link.
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from article Bioassay
In conducting bioassays, researchers often employ laboratory culture tests, which use, for example, bacteria cultured in a petri dish (usually to model an effect on the organism of interest or on some basic cellular function). (Credit:…
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from article Surfactant
Foam blankets typically contain less than 1% surfactant to produce a stable foam that blocks oxygen for fire suppression. (Credit: U.S. Navy)
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from article Matrix isolation
Vacuum-vessel base cross section for matrix photoionization experiments. 10 K = −263°C or −442°F.
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from article Matrix isolation
Schematic plan view of the matrix assembly for pulsed-laser ablation.
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from article Matrix isolation
Infrared and Raman spectra of lithium superoxide, Li+O2−, using lithium-7 and 30% 18O2, 50% 16O18O, and 20% 16O2 at concentrations of Ar/O2 = 100. The Raman spectrum was recorded by using 200 mW of 488-nm excitation at the sample.
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from article Matrix isolation
Visible and ultraviolet absorption spectra of naphthalene samples in solid argon at 20 K. Upper curves show Ar/CCl4/N = 3000/4/1, and lower curves show the same sample after 15 s of irradiation at 220–1000 nm from a high-pressure mercury arc.
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from article Matrix isolation
Infrared spectra in the 2000–1200 cm−1 region for the products of the reactions of laser-ablated Al atoms with pure hydrogen co-deposited at 3.5 K. (a) Spectrum obtained from initial deposited sample. (b) Spectrum after >290 nm irradiation. (c)…
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from article Platinum
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from article Overvoltage
Current density–potential curve.
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from article Overvoltage
Current density curves. (a) Experimental current–potential curve showing theoretical cathodic and anodic components. (b) Tafel plot.
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from article Radium
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from article Auger electron spectroscopy
Schematic diagram of an Auger electron being ejected from a carbon atom for a KL2L2 transition. Round forms are electrons.
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from article Auger electron spectroscopy
Integral (upper) and differential (lower) mode spectra of sputter-cleaned copper with the most intense peaks identified: A, M2,3M4,5M4,5; B, L3M4,5M4,5; C, L3M2,3M4,5; D, L3M2,3M2,3.
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from article Electromotive force (cells)
Cross-section diagram of Daniell cell. (After W. J. Moore, Physical Chemistry, 5th ed., Longman, 1974)
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from article Organosilicon compound
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from article Art conservation chemistry
Fresco restoration in Casa della Scheletro in Herculanium, Italy. (Credit: National Geographic Image Collection/Alamy)
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from article MXenes
Crystal structures of side views of MXene blocks: (a) M2XTz, (b) M3X2Tz, (c) M4X3Tz.
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from article MXenes
Typical scanning electron microscope micrographs of (a) Ti3AlC2 MAX phase and (b) Ti3C2Tz MLs. (c) Transmission electron microscope micrographs of delaminated single Ti3C2Tz layers.
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from article MXenes
Side view of o-MXenes with chemical formulas (a) M′2M′′2X3Tz, and (b) M′2M′′X2Tz. The M′ and M′′ transition metals are denoted by two different blue spheres and carbon by black.
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from article MXenes
i-MXene (a) side views and (b) top view. Here both M elements are present after etching. (c) Same as (a) but with minority element etched together with Al layers (not shown). (d) Top view of (c) showing ordered divacancies in the basal plane. The…
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from article MXenes
Scanning electron microscope micrograph of (a) vacuum-filtered film of MXene flakes and (b) crumpled MXene flakes formed after aggregation of MXene colloids at high or low pH. Scale bar = 2 μm.
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from article Ligand
The complex hexaammineruthenium(III); the six ammine groups (:NH3) are the ligands.
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from article Ligand
Bidentate ligands. (a) Ethylenediamine (en) and the cobalt coordination complex [Co(en)3]3+ with three en ligands. (b) The bidentate aromatic imine 2,2′-bipyridine (bpy) ligand (highlighted) in the complex Ru(bpy)2imNH2R.
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from article Activated carbon
Activated carbon pellets, 4- to 6-mesh.
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from article Electron configuration
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from article Electron configuration
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from article Titration
In the titration of an acid by a base, a pH meter measures the pH of the acid solution in the beaker as a solution of base with a known concentration is added from the burette. (Credit: McGraw-Hill Education/David A. Tietz, photographer)
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from article Titration
Titration curves of two monobasic acids (0.1 M), with sodium hydroxide as the titrant.
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from article Titration
Conductometric titration curve of acetic acid with ammonia as the titrant.
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from article Titration
Spectrophotometric titration curve of iron(II) in dilute sulfuric acid solution with potassium permanganate as the titrant. The curve shows the response when the titrant absorbs beyond the end point.
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from article Titration
Current-voltage curves at similar concentrations for two species (X and Y) that can react to form nonelectroactive products.
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from article Seaborgium
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from article Dysprosium
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from article Hypergeometric functions
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from article Lawrencium
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from article Gravimetric analysis
In gravimetric analysis, a filtration step is required to collect the precipitate. (Credit: Matt Meadows/McGraw-Hill Education)
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from article Particle track etching
Upper images show increasing radiation damage produced by a high-energy uranium nucleus in the cosmic radiation as it penetrates a thick stack of Lexan plastic sheets and slows down. The lengths of the etched cones in these three sheets, taken at…
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from article Particle track etching
Etched conical pits in a sheet of allyl diglycol carbonate (CR-39 plastic) irradiated at normal incidence with 60-MeV alpha particles. (From P. B. Price et al., Do energetic heavy nuclei penetrate deeply into the Earth's atmosphere?, Proc. Nat.…
