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Neuroscientists have long sought to explain how the brain correctly recognizes a stimulus despite the stimulus appearing under different circumstances with widely variable external factors. For example, with regard to olfactory stimuli, humans can…

A newly identified coronavirus, provisionally termed 2019-nCoV (an acronym for 2019 novel coronavirus) and subsequently named "severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2" (SARS-CoV-2), emerged in central China in November 2019. The disease…

Studies have shown that all classes of vertebrates—and even some invertebrate species—have the cognitive ability to discriminate among different quantities. For example, many kinds of studied animals can distinguish specific numbers of objects in…

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), of all the food produced worldwide, 14 percent—estimated at approximately USD$300 billion—goes to waste each year along the food supply chain, from farms to the retail…

Two new studies offer insight into why infection with SARS-CoV-2—the coronavirus that causes COVID-19—often leads to loss of smell, as well as why some people experience debilitating symptoms months after infection—a condition known as long COVID.…

Among the non-human animals that can be infected with—and become sick from—humans who have the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 are deer, mink, hyenas, pigs, ferrets, dogs, cats, and primates such as rhesus macaque monkeys, baboons, and…

Food packaging prevents contamination and extends the shelf-life of food products, making food safe and available to the public. Common food-packaging materials include metals, glass, paper, and plastics. Of these, metals, glass, and recyclable…

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease typically found in central and western Africa caused by infection with the monkeypox virus. The disease was originally discovered in a group of monkeys used for research in 1958. The virus was later found to be…

Bats are members of the order Chiroptera, which is the second-largest order of living mammals. The geographic distribution of these flying mammals is tremendous as well, ranging from the limit of trees in the Northern Hemisphere to the southern tips…

Genealogists and anthropologists have long disputed the provenance of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). Although genetic analyses and fossil evidence indicate that the domestic dog descended from the gray wolf (Canis lupus), the exact location…

Food waste occurs at all levels of the supply chain and beyond, from farm to table, for reasons ranging from spoilage to over-buying. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Economic Research Service defines food waste as “the edible amount of…

A serious outbreak of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), an infectious viral disease, is currently spreading among horse populations in Europe. This outbreak was first detected in Valencia, Spain, in February 2021 during a month-long equestrian…

In a breakthrough in the global fight against malaria, the World Health Organization (WHO) is recommending widespread administration of the first-ever malaria vaccine. This first-generation vaccine is intended for children considered to be at high…

Pasta comes in various sizes and shapes, ranging from long and flat (such as linguine and spaghetti) to short types in the shape of shells (conchiglie), corkscrews (fusilli), and many others. Shaped pastas contain a larger volume of air, resulting…

The diverse totality of microorganisms regularly found on and in the human body is collectively referred to as the human microbiota or microbial flora, with the largest microbial community in the body residing in the large intestine, or colon.…

In the future, will global demand for coffee outstrip supply? The International Coffee Organization thinks so, based on droughts in Central America, crop-destroying freezing weather in Brazil, and global climate change. In general, coffee is a very…

In many animals, including humans, the sense of smell performs an important threat-detection function by helping to identify potential sources of harm, such as rotting food and toxic fumes. Little is known, however, about the initial neural…

A new mathematical approach called emulation dramatically decreases the amount of time necessary to solve equations describing key properties of atomic nuclei. The approach will help physicists run simulations far more quickly—and without the need…

The field of vaccination has been enhanced significantly by the successful development of two approved vaccines based on messenger RNA (mRNA) technologies. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic that spread from China in 2019 to the rest of the world in…

The fossil record of sharks (members of the subclass Elasmobranchii within the class Chondrichthyes, or cartilaginous fishes) dates back more than 420 million years. Over the course of this time, sharks have been among the top predators found in the…

On April 7, 2021, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced that a genetic variant of SARS-CoV-2—the coronavirus that causes COVID-19—that was initially identified in the United Kingdom is the dominant form of the virus…

In response to the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic—which has dramatically affected the entire world, causing high morbidity, mortality, and massive social and economic disruption—and in addition to finding efficacious treatments for…

Researchers at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA, have developed a virus catcher of sorts—that is, a sticky and absorbent surface coating that traps droplets and aerosols (microdroplets) that land on the coating. Most often, fine…

An investigation of 890-million-year-old limestone rocks excavated from the mountains of Canada's Northwest Territories has revealed possible evidence of the oldest animal life on Earth. Prior to this study, the oldest undisputed fossils of animal…

There is a growing body of evidence that many of the thousands of prescription and over-the-counter medications ultimately make their way into water bodies and drinking-water supplies. Typical wastewater treatment plants may not be effective at…

Scientists have suggested a possible connection between ancient Neandertals (Homo neanderthalensis) and the severity of disease in patients affected by COVID-19. In short, certain genes acquired from Neandertals during instances of interbreeding…

The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 that emerged in central China in late 2019 and subsequently spread across the world in 2020 led to the COVID-19 pandemic. The emergence of a previously unknown pathogen—such as the novel coronavirus—that could affect…

There has been substantial progress in the fight against certain drug-resistant organisms that cause serious, often fatal, diseases. However, two drug-resistant microbes—specifically, Candida auris (a fungal yeast) and Acinetobacter (a genus of…

Sickle cell disease, also termed sickle cell anemia, is a genetic disorder in which hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation, causes red blood cells (erythrocytes) to assume a rigid sickle shape, blocking blood flow within blood vessels. The disease results…

The earliest representatives of modern humans—those belonging to Homo sapiens—evolved from more archaic humans approximately 150,000–300,000 years ago in eastern Africa. During succeeding years, the geographical range of anatomically modern humans…

Mucus produced by the common garden snail (Helix aspersa) is green. The slime is not actually green in color but is “green” in terms of its environmentally friendly chemistry. It turns out that this snail’s mucus has chemical properties as a…

Life on Earth has been punctuated by a number of catastrophic mass extinctions throughout history. During these events, diverse taxonomic groups collapsed from the relatively rapid and widespread extinction of large numbers of species. Precipitated…

Heroin (C21H23NO5) is a white, crystalline powder synthesized from morphine, a natural alkaloid extracted from the seedpod of the Asian opium poppy plant, Papaver somniferum. It is a powerful opioid drug prepared by the addition of two acetyl groups…

The majority of toxic pollution in the United States could potentially be eliminated by requiring a small number of extreme polluters to release pollutants at levels in line with those of comparable industrial facilities, according to a recent study…

Over thousands of years of study of the human body through dissection and, more recently, modern-day imaging techniques, scientists have observed and analyzed various glands—that is, structures or organs that produce and secrete a substance or…

Scientists have identified the earliest known fossil of a modern bird. The fossil remains—comprising an almost-complete skull and a few limb bones embedded in rock—were discovered in a limestone quarry in Belgium. Estimated to be approximately 66.7…

During the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, most restaurants and other dining facilities were shut down to contain the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. By July 2020, however, indoor dining once again became an option for many…

Since the start of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic, doctors and epidemiologists have identified a number of underlying medical conditions that are significantly correlated with severe illness from COVID-19. One such notable…

As offices, schools, health clubs, restaurants, hotels, and other facilities gradually reopen after shutdowns related to the COVID-19 pandemic, the public may confront yet another unmitigated health hazard: unsafe water from dormant or underused…

Over the course of history, smallpox has been among the most feared diseases of humankind. Caused by the variola virus (a DNA-containing member of the Poxviridae family) and spread by transfer through respiratory droplets during face-to-face…

Overwhelming fossil evidence of dinosaurs indicates that these reptiles inhabited terrestrial environments and were initially bipedal (two-footed). Then, as dinosaurs evolved, some became quadrupedal, walking on four legs. Other ancient nondinosaur…

Occurring in mammary glands and closely associated tissues, breast cancer is the most common cancer observed in women. For example, in the United States, approximately 1 in 8 women (about 12%) will develop invasive breast cancer over the course of…

A form of ultraviolet (UV) light holds promise as an innovative way to neutralize airborne SARS-CoV-2 particles and other viruses, potentially helping slow the COVID-19 pandemic that, to date, has caused over 1.3 million deaths globally. More…

Poliomyelitis, more commonly called polio, is a devastating infectious disease of the central nervous system caused by the poliovirus (a type of enterovirus), which has three types in the wild (types 1, 2, and 3). Wild types 2 and 3 were declared…

Persistent changes in the Earth's climate that have been occurring primarily as a result of human-caused greenhouse-gas emissions since the mid-twentieth century have led to significant increases in infectious diseases in wildlife, both in terms of…

The Ebola virus comprises a group of pathogenic agents that cause severe and deadly hemorrhagic fevers in humans and other primates. During 2014 and 2015, an Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa—predominantly, the countries of Guinea, Liberia, and…

The cancer death rate in the United States has fallen by 27% since 1991. According to the American Cancer Society, which compiled the data over a 25-year period from 1991 to 2016, a total of 2.6 million fewer individuals have died from cancer in the…

It has been a long-held belief that, as a result of hunting habits, early humans were partly or even primarily responsible for the decline and eventual extinction of most of the largest mammalian species that inhabited ancient Africa. These large…

A compound found in cranberries, called cranberry proanthocyanidin (cPAC), when used in combination with antibiotics, such as tetracycline, prevents resistance to antibiotics in Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, according to researchers…

At the Woranso-Mille paleontological site in northern Ethiopia, researchers have discovered a 3.8 million-year-old cranium (skull) belonging to a primitive hominin known as Australopithecus anamensis. Initially unearthed in 2016, but not reported…

Eastern equine encephalitis is a rare infectious viral disease that primarily affects humans and equines (horses, mules, donkeys, and zebras). It is caused by a mosquito-borne virus (arbovirus) that is native to the eastern half of the United…

Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid analgesic (pain reliever) that resembles morphine in its action. However, its drug potency is approximately 50 to 100 times more powerful than that of morphine, leading to high rates of both addiction and overdose…

The four main blood types (blood groups) found in humans are A, B, AB, and O. Two particular antigens (A and B) determine the specific blood type—A antigen is present in type A blood; B antigen is present in type B blood; both A and B antigens are…

Researchers at Duke University in North Carolina (United States) have developed a test for distinguishing lead isotopes found in coal fly ash from lead isotopes found in other lead-containing sources, such as paint. Fly ash is a fine particulate…

Macular degeneration is the most prevalent cause of vision impairment and loss among people aged 55 years and older. Also termed age-related macular degeneration (AMD), this serious eye condition damages the macula, which is the most sensitive part…

Marburg hemorrhagic fever (also referred to as Marburg virus disease) is a rare, exotic viral disease that affects both humans and nonhuman primates. The reservoir hosts of Marburg virus are African (or Egyptian) fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus),…

Measles is a highly infectious and communicable disease that is most often contracted in childhood. The infective particle is a ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus—specifically, a paramyxovirus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus. Infected individuals…

Caused by the rod-shaped bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and transmitted by airborne droplets from a diseased individual, tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease of humans (and other animals) that destroys body tissue. When M.…

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a protein that plays a central role in the regulation of bone mass. Also known as osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor (OCIF), this naturally occurring protein [a soluble decoy receptor protein that belongs to the tumor…

Pesticides—including insecticides and herbicides—are chemical products used to control, reduce, or eliminate organisms that are harmful to cultivated plants. However, the use of pesticides on plants that provide foods for human consumption is often…

The bacteria that live in the gut (gastrointestinal tract) constitute a large part of an individual's microbiome (also known as microbiota). In general, gut bacteria, also referred to as the microbial flora of the gut, are harbored by normal,…

Influenza is a viral disease that affects numerous animals, including birds, pigs, horses, and humans. It also can affect dogs, and epidemiologists are increasingly concerned about the potential transmission of the influenza virus from these animals…

Psychedelic drugs, also termed hallucinogenic or psychotomimetic drugs, induce transient states of altered perception resembling or mimicking the symptoms of psychosis and are characterized by profound alterations in mood. Because psychedelic drugs…

Statins comprise a group of drugs that are widely prescribed to combat high cholesterol. They suppress the production of cholesterol in the liver and interfere with the formation of plaques in the arteries of the body. As such, these…

Cannabidiol (CBD) is the predominant cannabinoid (chemical constituent) of the more than 100 cannabinoids found in the hemp variety of the plant Cannabis sativa. There are preliminary, yet unproven, claims that CBD may offer benefits for treating…

Those who fear contracting a water-borne illness caused by pollution at the shore or ingesting a killer amoeba (Naegleria fowleri) at a freshwater lake might instead opt to visit a swimming pool. After all, most pool water is hygienically treated.…

Researchers have developed polymeric materials that are able to kill multidrug-resistant bacteria without inducing drug resistance or toxic side effects, according to a report in Nature Communications (March 2018). The polymers, known as…

Antisense drugs are gene-based molecules that inhibit the synthesis of proteins (including proteins that cause specific diseases) by binding to the ribonucleic acids (RNAs) responsible for their formation. Specifically, these drugs are…

Soil harbors a vast reservoir of antimicrobial agents. In fact, approximately 80% of all clinically implemented antibiotics are derived from soil-dwelling bacteria. However, many bacteria have evolved methods to evade the effects of various…

The Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis), also known as the bush tick, is a troublesome parasitic species and is an important vector of disease agents. (Note that vectors are capable of biologically transferring a pathogen from one…

In an application of green chemistry, researchers reported in the journal Biomaterials (April 2018) the caffeine-catalyzed synthesis of a new class of polymer gels for drug delivery and other biomedical applications. These caffeine-catalyzed gels…

Handheld electronic devices with plastic casings, such as cell phones, may be exposing users to toxic organophosphate ester (OPE) flame retardants that leach out of these products. Researchers from the University of Toronto reported in Environment…

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease of humans (as well as animals) primarily involving the lungs. It is caused by the tubercle bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is transmitted by pathogenic airborne droplets. Approximately 5–10%…

CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing is a modern technique that targets specific stretches of genetic code and allows editing of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at designated locations. It has been at the forefront of genetic research, providing scientists with the…

The influenza virus may be easier to transmit than previously thought, according to a report in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (January 2018). It turns out that sneezing and coughing are not required to pass on the influenza…

The prevalence of diseases caused by ticks, mosquitoes, and fleas that feed on the blood of humans has increased dramatically. Over a 13-year span (the years 2004 through 2016), the incidence of tick-, mosquito-, and flea-borne diseases in humans…

The evolutionary transition of certain dinosaurs into modern birds has long been an active area of paleontological research. Because the members of the class Aves are living representatives of theropod dinosaurs, paleontologists have sought fossil…

A new single-dose antiviral drug can shorten the duration of the flu in teens and adults by about a day, according to a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine (September 2018). The drug, baloxavir marboxil (Xofluza™; baloxavir),…

A newly identified reptilian fossil has pushed back the phylogenetic (evolutionary) family tree of Squamata [the dominant order of living reptiles, comprising lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians (mostly limbless lizards that resemble worms)] by 75…

Autism, also known as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that impairs the way that a person relates to and communicates with other people. In addition, autism is characterized by restricted, repetitive, or…

Scientists have long thought that dinosaur eggs were white in color and that the evolution of colored eggs in birds was strictly an avian innovation that occurred after the demise of the nonavian dinosaurs. However, technical advancements in the…

Mathematics is often referred to as the language of nature. A new study further makes this case by demonstrating that the distribution of prime numbers bears a striking similarity to the positions of atoms in materials known as quasicrystals. The…

Regeneration is the regrowth and replacement of living tissues or organs that have been lost or severely injured through mishaps or disease. The goal of regenerative medicine with regard to humans is to restore the structure and function of any…

To better understand the nutritional effects (health benefits), chemical composition, growing conditions, and shelf life of microgreens, a team of researchers reviewed the science behind them in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry…

On October 9, 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the use of seven synthetic food flavoring additives: benzophenone, ethyl acrylate, eugenyl methyl ether, myrcene, pulegone, pyridine, and styrene. The use of benzophenone as a…

It is estimated that 1 gram of soil can be inhabited by up to 109 microorganisms and approximately 60,000 bacterial species. Moreover, soil harbors a vast reservoir of antimicrobial agents, and soil-dwelling bacteria have played a key role in the…

Colorectal cancer (also termed colon or bowel cancer) is the third most prevalent type of cancer both in men and in women, taking the lives of approximately 400,000 people annually worldwide (including 50,000 people per year in the United States).…

There are 27 ways a heat wave can kill you, according to a report in the American Heart Association journal Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes (November 2017). By 2100, at the current rate of greenhouse-gas emissions, three-quarters of…

The biotechnology used in the creation of genetically modified crops is being expanded to encompass the bioengineering of plants that contain therapeutically important proteins and molecules that can be utilized in the manufacturing of…

Experimental trials in Guinea, West Africa, confirmed the efficacy of an Ebola virus vaccine, according to a report by World Health Organization (WHO) scientists published in late 2016. The vaccine known as rVSV-ZEBOV (recombinant vesicular…

Recent excavations in Asia unearthed a pristine, three-dimensional fossil of a tiny dinosaur tail with preserved feathers and soft tissues (presumably skin). In 2016, investigators in northern Myanmar (Burma) recovered a piece of Cretaceous-era…

The water crisis that gripped the city of Flint, Michigan, in 2014 and 2015—and which is still felt to the present day—became one of the most notorious and scandalous public health disasters in recent United States history. The immediate cause was…

Survival prospects for the honeybee (Apis mellifera) look increasingly promising as entomologists and beekeepers have reported a dramatic increase in the population numbers of these essential insects in North America and Europe. Honeybees, which are…

Through study of the fossil record, paleontologists can frequently identify when an ancient species or taxon (a grouping of related organisms) first emerged in evolutionary history. (Paleontologists often prefer the term taxon over species because…

In recent years, Brazil has been faced with outbreaks of a variety of perilous viral diseases, especially Zika virus disease, dengue fever, and yellow fever. Now, medical personnel and researchers are troubled by another emerging virus disease known…

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that attacks and compromises the body's immune system, resulting in affected individuals facing long-term debilitating health. Without treatment, HIV-infected individuals typically succumb to…

New regulations by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that went into effect on January 1, 2017, banned the use of antibiotics as feed supplements to help livestock and poultry grow faster. The new rules, prohibiting the over-the-counter…

Surface water from streams across the United States contain a diverse mixture of synthetic organic pollutants, according to a joint U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study reported in the journal…

A magnitude 5.1 nuclear test was detected 376 km (234 mi) NE of Pyongyang, North Korea (DPRK) on January 6, 2015 at 10:30 a.m. local time (01:30 UTC), according to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The event was picked up at seismic stations around…

The benefits of outdoor physical activity (exercise) outweigh the potential harm caused by air pollution except in the most highly polluted cities, according to epidemiological studies reported in the journal Preventive Medicine (February 2016).…