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An autonomous undersea vehicle that can be launched from submarines, surface ships, or aircraft to attack enemy submarines and surface ships. An acoustic torpedo is a sophisticated weapon. Its main components are a guidance and control system, a…

The techniques and methods used in plowing, harrowing, planting, tilling, harvesting, drying, storing, and processing of agricultural crops. Agricultural soil and crop practices seek to keep the quality and fertility of soils at high levels so as to…

The dried, unripe fruits (berries) of a small, tropical, evergreen tree, Pimenta dioica (P. officinalis), of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). Allspice (see illustration), which is also known as Jamaica pepper, is a native of the West Indies and parts…

Prunus dulcis (also known as Prunus amygdalus or Amygdalus communis), a small deciduous tree of the order Rosales that is closely related to the peach and other stone fruit trees, and grown widely for its ellipsoidal edible seeds. The fruit of the…

Substances suitable for the nutrition of animals, including livestock and poultry feed and pet food. Animal feed includes plant and animal products and by-products as well as vitamin and mineral supplements. Livestock and poultry feed In formulating…

An annual herb, Pimpinella anisum (family Apiaceae), whose fruit is used to provide food flavoring and to make a distilled oil. Anise is one of the earliest aromatics mentioned in literature. The anise plant (see illustration) is an annual herb that…

Substitutes for sugar (sucrose) in foods and beverages that provide intense sweetness with few to no calories. Artificial sweeteners are sometimes called low-calorie sweeteners, high-intensity sweeteners, noncaloric sweeteners, non-nutritive…

A white, crystalline compound, 1-aspartyl-1-phenylalanine methyl ester (APM), with formula (1). It is slightly soluble in water. Its sweetening properties were discovered accidentally in 1965 when the compound, a dipeptide, was produced as an…

The branch of applied physics which deals with the motion of projectiles and the conditions governing their motion. Ballistics is, for practical purposes, subdivided into exterior and interior ballistics. Exterior ballistics begins at the instant a…

A fermented beverage produced from grain. Beer is a generic term used to describe alcoholic beverages made from cereal grains, especially barley (Fig. 1), in the form of malt. Ale, lager, porter, and stout are different kinds of beer made by…

An illness produced by the exotoxin of Clostridium botulinum and occasionally other bacterial members of the genus Clostridium, and characterized by paralysis and other neurological abnormalities. Botulism is a serious (though rare) condition caused…

A food product made by churning cream. In the United States, butter is not defined by Standard of Identity in the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act as are most foods, but instead it was defined in 1923 by an act of Congress. Butter must contain at least…

The principal protein fraction of cows' milk. It accounts for about 80% of the protein content and is present in concentrations of 2.5–3.2%. The term casein, derived from the Latin word for cheese, caseus, was introduced into the scientific…

A dairy product made by selectively concentrating major milk components. Cheese is generally rich in flavor and contains high-quality nutrients. There are many varieties of cheese, all produced in the following general manner: Raw or pasteurized…

Products derived from the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao, which grows within a narrow belt along both sides of the Equator. There are three basic varieties: Criollo, which was native to Central and South America; Forastero, which…

A tropical evergreen shrub or small tree of the genus Coffea (family Rubiaceae), a native of northeast Africa and adjacent southwest Asia, cultivated for the seeds (coffee beans) of its fruit. Members of the genus Coffea (Fig. 1) grow mainly between…

Keeping perishable products at low temperatures in order to extend storage life. Cold storage vastly retards the processes responsible for the natural deterioration of the quality of such products at higher temperatures. Time and temperature are the…

Zea mays, also known as maize, a grain crop grown for its edible seeds (kernels). Corn (Zea mays) [Fig. 1] is an important cereal grass plant belonging to the order Poales (formerly Cyperales). The top corn-producing countries are the United…

A burst of electromagnetic energy. In a military context—and the subject of this article—an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a transient electromagnetic signal produced by a nuclear explosion in or above Earth's atmosphere (Fig. 1). Though not…

Important functional components of foods, belonging to a group of biological substance called lipids. Fats and oils are soluble in organic solvents such as hexane, petroleum ether, alcohol, and chloroform. They are insoluble in water. Fats and oils…

An enzymatic transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of a gas. Fermentation is a chemical transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, to alcohol or organic acids,…

An altered immunological reaction to a food substance to which people typically do not react. A food allergy is a hypersensitivity to a certain food or foods. Allergy to food is similar to that to other environmental allergens [substances (antigens)…

The application of engineering principles to process, store, distribute, and protect food products for human consumption. The field of food engineering is multidisciplinary in nature because it combines chemistry, physics, engineering sciences,…

Production of food with the aid of microorganisms, which may be yeasts, molds, or bacteria. Well-known examples of such foods are bread, cheese, beer, wine, vinegar, some sausages, vegetables, yogurt, and cultured milk (see illustration). Various…

The study of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of foods as well as the sensory, nutritional, storage properties, and safety of foods. Food properties are influenced by growing, harvesting, and slaughtering practices, preservation and…

Any pathological condition transmitted by contaminated food. Foodborne diseases and illnesses, which are instances of food poisoning, have a significant impact on public health. They occur when foods contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms (Fig.…

Practices that are implemented to ensure the quality of meat foods and their products to avoid contamination and foodborne illnesses. Food safety involves the proper handling, preparation, and storage of all foods and must be adhered to throughout…

An explosion whose energy is produced by a nuclear transformation, either fission or fusion. Nuclear explosions can be either natural or artificial, for example in the form of a star undergoing a supernova or the deliberate detonation of an…

A system of food and fiber production that relies on the strategic management of the agroecosystem to foster plant and animal health and productivity, as opposed to reliance on external, synthetic agricultural inputs. As an ecological management…

A biennial herb, Petroselinum crispum, of European origin belonging to the plant order Apiales (Umbellales). Parsley (see illustration) is grown for its edible foliage and is used to garnish and flavor foods. It contains large quantities of vitamins…

The treatment of foods or beverages with mild heat, irradiation, or chemical agents to improve keeping quality or to inactivate disease-causing microorganisms. Originally, Louis Pasteur observed that spoilage of wine and beer could be prevented by…

A low-branching, self-pollinated, one- to six-seeded annual legume (Arachis hypogaea) cultivated for its edible seed, which forms beneath the soil in a pod. Peanuts are cultivated throughout the tropical and temperate climates of the world. Peanut…

A large deciduous hickory tree [Carya illinoensis (alternatively C. illinoiensis or C. illinoinensis)], and the edible, oblong, thin-shelled nut from this tree. The pecan tree belongs to the family Juglandaceae (order Fagales; alternatively…

The mint species Mentha piperita in the family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). Peppermint (see illustration) is a sterile interspecific hybrid that is believed to have occurred in nature from the hybridization of fertile Mentha aquatica with fertile Mentha…

A proteolytic enzyme found in the gastric juice of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. It is formed from a precursor, pepsinogen, which is found in the stomach mucosa. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin either by hydrochloric acid, naturally present…

An optical instrument that permits viewing along a displaced or deflected axis, providing an observer with the view from a position which may be inaccessible or dangerous. Periscopes range in complexity from the simple unit-power tank periscope to…

Pesticides—including insecticides and herbicides—are chemical products used to control, reduce, or eliminate organisms that are harmful to cultivated plants. However, the use of pesticides on plants that provide foods for human consumption is often…

Any one of a group of carbohydrates or polysaccharides, of the general composition (C6H10O5)n occurring in many plant cells. Starch occurs as discrete, partially crystalline granules in the seeds, roots (tubers), stems (pith), leaves, fruits, and…

A ship that can operate completely submerged in the water. The term "submarine" formerly applied to any ship capable of operating completely underwater, but now usually describes a ship built for military purposes (Fig. 1). The expected military…

Saccharum officinarum, a stout, perennial member of the grass family characterized by two-ranked leaves and a many-jointed stalk; the source approximately 70% of the world's annual sugar production. Sugarcane (also spelled sugar cane) [Fig. 1]…

A chemical sense by which flavors are perceived by receptors in the oral cavity. Taste, or gustation, is one of the senses used to detect (via taste buds; Fig. 1) the chemical makeup of ingested food, thereby establishing its palatability and…

A food grain crop of the genus Triticum, in which the inflorescence is a spike bearing sessile spikelets arranged alternately on a zigzag rachis (main axis). Wheat (genus Triticum) [Fig. 1] is the most widely grown food crop in the world and ranks…

A beverage produced by the alcoholic fermentation of grape juice. Grapes possess two attributes that contribute to their preeminence in wine production. The juice of fresh ripe grapes is mildly acidic (pH 3.0–3.5) and contains about 21–25%…

A collective name for those fungi that possess, under normal growth conditions, a vegetative body (thallus) consisting, at least in part, of simple, single cells. Yeasts are a phylogenetically diverse group of organisms that occur in two divisions…

Mechanized systems of food and fiber production used in agriculture. The mechanized systems comprising agricultural machinery are utilized in numerous aspects of agriculture, including the initial tillage of the soil (Fig. 1), planting, cultural…

A device for suddenly producing an explosive neutron chain reaction in a fissile material such as uranium-235 (235U) or plutonium-239 (239Pu). An atomic bomb derives its destructive potency from the rapid release of nuclear energy brought about by…

A means of protecting food products and extending the products’ shelf life. Extending the shelf life of a food makes more food available to consumers by reducing wasted food products and enabling an increased geographic distribution of the food.…

An acute gastrointestinal or neurologic disorder caused by bacteria (or their toxic products), viruses, or harmful chemicals in foods. In general, food poisoning (foodborne illness) is a condition resulting from the consumption of food or water…

A device in which an uncontrolled, self-sustaining, thermonuclear fusion reaction is carried out in heavy hydrogen (deuterium or tritium) to produce an explosion. Initial conceptualization of the hydrogen bomb occurred alongside development of the…

Mammary secretions obtained from animals used as a food source or processed into food products. The general term milk refers to cow's milk. However, milk is also obtained from goats, sheep, and buffalo (Fig. 1). Buffalo Dairy cattle production Goat…

Diseases caused by Salmonella bacteria. Infections that are engendered by Salmonella bacteria are known as salmonelloses (the singular form is salmonellosis). In general, salmonelloses are commonly spread through contaminated food or water, leading…

To better understand the nutritional effects (health benefits), chemical composition, growing conditions, and shelf life of microgreens, a team of researchers reviewed the science behind them in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry…

On October 9, 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the use of seven synthetic food flavoring additives: benzophenone, ethyl acrylate, eugenyl methyl ether, myrcene, pulegone, pyridine, and styrene. The use of benzophenone as a…

An aqueous solution of acetic acid that is produced by the bacterial oxidative fermentation of ethanol or sugars. Vinegar, like wine and certain milk products, is one of the oldest fermented foods. Babylonian records indicate that vinegars prepared…

The discovery of the technique of modulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal initiated the journey of the ever-evolving military communications field. However, RF modulation was a mere scientific curiosity until hardware improvements and better…