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The techniques and methods used in plowing, harrowing, planting, tilling, harvesting, drying, storing, and processing of agricultural crops. Agricultural soil and crop practices seek to keep the quality and fertility of soils at high levels so as to…

The dried, unripe fruits (berries) of a small, tropical, evergreen tree, Pimenta dioica (P. officinalis), of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). Allspice (see illustration), which is also known as Jamaica pepper, is a native of the West Indies and parts…

Prunus dulcis (also known as Prunus amygdalus or Amygdalus communis), a small deciduous tree of the order Rosales that is closely related to the peach and other stone fruit trees, and grown widely for its ellipsoidal edible seeds. The fruit of the…

Substances suitable for the nutrition of animals, including livestock and poultry feed and pet food. Animal feed includes plant and animal products and by-products as well as vitamin and mineral supplements. Livestock and poultry feed In formulating…

An annual herb, Pimpinella anisum (family Apiaceae), whose fruit is used to provide food flavoring and to make a distilled oil. Anise is one of the earliest aromatics mentioned in literature. The anise plant (see illustration) is an annual herb that…

Substitutes for sugar (sucrose) in foods and beverages that provide intense sweetness with few to no calories. Artificial sweeteners are sometimes called low-calorie sweeteners, high-intensity sweeteners, noncaloric sweeteners, non-nutritive…

A white, crystalline compound, 1-aspartyl-1-phenylalanine methyl ester (APM), with formula (1). It is slightly soluble in water. Its sweetening properties were discovered accidentally in 1965 when the compound, a dipeptide, was produced as an…

A fermented beverage produced from grain. Beer is a generic term used to describe alcoholic beverages made from cereal grains, especially barley (Fig. 1), in the form of malt. Ale, lager, porter, and stout are different kinds of beer made by…

An illness produced by the exotoxin of Clostridium botulinum and occasionally other bacterial members of the genus Clostridium, and characterized by paralysis and other neurological abnormalities. Botulism is a serious (though rare) condition caused…

A food product made by churning cream. In the United States, butter is not defined by Standard of Identity in the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act as are most foods, but instead it was defined in 1923 by an act of Congress. Butter must contain at least…

The principal protein fraction of cows' milk. It accounts for about 80% of the protein content and is present in concentrations of 2.5–3.2%. The term casein, derived from the Latin word for cheese, caseus, was introduced into the scientific…

A dairy product made by selectively concentrating major milk components. Cheese is generally rich in flavor and contains high-quality nutrients. There are many varieties of cheese, all produced in the following general manner: Raw or pasteurized…

Products derived from the seeds of the tropical tree Theobroma cacao, which grows within a narrow belt along both sides of the Equator. There are three basic varieties: Criollo, which was native to Central and South America; Forastero, which…

A tropical evergreen shrub or small tree of the genus Coffea (family Rubiaceae), a native of northeast Africa and adjacent southwest Asia, cultivated for the seeds (coffee beans) of its fruit. Members of the genus Coffea (Fig. 1) grow mainly between…

Keeping perishable products at low temperatures in order to extend storage life. Cold storage vastly retards the processes responsible for the natural deterioration of the quality of such products at higher temperatures. Time and temperature are the…

Zea mays, also known as maize, a grain crop grown for its edible seeds (kernels). Corn (Zea mays) [Fig. 1] is an important cereal grass plant belonging to the order Poales (formerly Cyperales). The top corn-producing countries are the United…

Important functional components of foods, belonging to a group of biological substance called lipids. Fats and oils are soluble in organic solvents such as hexane, petroleum ether, alcohol, and chloroform. They are insoluble in water. Fats and oils…

An enzymatic transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, generally accompanied by the evolution of a gas. Fermentation is a chemical transformation of organic substrates, especially carbohydrates, to alcohol or organic acids,…

An altered immunological reaction to a food substance to which people typically do not react. A food allergy is a hypersensitivity to a certain food or foods. Allergy to food is similar to that to other environmental allergens [substances (antigens)…

The application of engineering principles to process, store, distribute, and protect food products for human consumption. The field of food engineering is multidisciplinary in nature because it combines chemistry, physics, engineering sciences,…

Production of food with the aid of microorganisms, which may be yeasts, molds, or bacteria. Well-known examples of such foods are bread, cheese, beer, wine, vinegar, some sausages, vegetables, yogurt, and cultured milk (see illustration). Various…

The study of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of foods as well as the sensory, nutritional, storage properties, and safety of foods. Food properties are influenced by growing, harvesting, and slaughtering practices, preservation and…

Any pathological condition transmitted by contaminated food. Foodborne diseases and illnesses, which are instances of food poisoning, have a significant impact on public health. They occur when foods contaminated by pathogenic microorganisms (Fig.…

Practices that are implemented to ensure the quality of meat foods and their products to avoid contamination and foodborne illnesses. Food safety involves the proper handling, preparation, and storage of all foods and must be adhered to throughout…

A system of food and fiber production that relies on the strategic management of the agroecosystem to foster plant and animal health and productivity, as opposed to reliance on external, synthetic agricultural inputs. As an ecological management…

A biennial herb, Petroselinum crispum, of European origin belonging to the plant order Apiales (Umbellales). Parsley (see illustration) is grown for its edible foliage and is used to garnish and flavor foods. It contains large quantities of vitamins…

The treatment of foods or beverages with mild heat, irradiation, or chemical agents to improve keeping quality or to inactivate disease-causing microorganisms. Originally, Louis Pasteur observed that spoilage of wine and beer could be prevented by…

A low-branching, self-pollinated, one- to six-seeded annual legume (Arachis hypogaea) cultivated for its edible seed, which forms beneath the soil in a pod. Peanuts are cultivated throughout the tropical and temperate climates of the world. Peanut…

A large deciduous hickory tree [Carya illinoensis (alternatively C. illinoiensis or C. illinoinensis)], and the edible, oblong, thin-shelled nut from this tree. The pecan tree belongs to the family Juglandaceae (order Fagales; alternatively…

The mint species Mentha piperita in the family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). Peppermint (see illustration) is a sterile interspecific hybrid that is believed to have occurred in nature from the hybridization of fertile Mentha aquatica with fertile Mentha…

A proteolytic enzyme found in the gastric juice of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. It is formed from a precursor, pepsinogen, which is found in the stomach mucosa. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin either by hydrochloric acid, naturally present…

Pesticides—including insecticides and herbicides—are chemical products used to control, reduce, or eliminate organisms that are harmful to cultivated plants. However, the use of pesticides on plants that provide foods for human consumption is often…

Any one of a group of carbohydrates or polysaccharides, of the general composition (C6H10O5)n occurring in many plant cells. Starch occurs as discrete, partially crystalline granules in the seeds, roots (tubers), stems (pith), leaves, fruits, and…

Saccharum officinarum, a stout, perennial member of the grass family characterized by two-ranked leaves and a many-jointed stalk; the source approximately 70% of the world's annual sugar production. Sugarcane (also spelled sugar cane) [Fig. 1]…

A chemical sense by which flavors are perceived by receptors in the oral cavity. Taste, or gustation, is one of the senses used to detect (via taste buds; Fig. 1) the chemical makeup of ingested food, thereby establishing its palatability and…

A food grain crop of the genus Triticum, in which the inflorescence is a spike bearing sessile spikelets arranged alternately on a zigzag rachis (main axis). Wheat (genus Triticum) [Fig. 1] is the most widely grown food crop in the world and ranks…