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The apparent change in direction of a celestial source of light caused by an observer's component of motion perpendicular to the impinging rays. In astronomy, aberration manifests, for example, as a star appearing aberrantly from what its true…

A common medicine used to relieve mild to moderate pain and reduce fever. Acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol), or paracetamol, is a white crystalline compound with the molecular formula C8H9NO2 (Fig. 1). It is a member of the aniline family of…

Technologies to optimize the performance of optical systems wherein controllable optical elements maintain a sharply focused image in the presence of wavefront aberrations. The practical development of adaptive optics started in the late 1960s. Main…

Natural and artificial substances in the atmosphere that affect human health or well-being, or the well-being of any other organisms in the environment. Air pollution also applies to situations in which contaminants affect structures and artifacts…

A disease of the nervous system characterized by a progressive dementia that leads to profound impairment in cognition and behavior. Dementia occurs in a number of brain diseases where the impairment in cognitive abilities represents a decline from…

A member of a group of organic compounds that can be considered as derived from ammonia by replacement of one or more hydrogens by organic functional groups. Generally amines are bases of widely varying strengths, but a few that are acidic are…

A conductor whose purpose is to emit and/or receive electromagnetic waves using the bulk oscillations of electric charges within the conductor. The conduction electrons in antennas are free to move throughout the conductor. The electrons form a bulk…

The subfield of computer science concerned with understanding the nature of intelligence and constructing computer systems capable of intelligent behavior. Many activities, such as perception, learning, planning, natural language, and understanding,…

One of the many hundreds of thousands of small planets (technically called minor planets) revolving around the Sun, mainly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids are rocky bodies varying greatly in size from less than 10 meters across (33…

An analytical technique for determining the composition of a sample in terms of the chemical elements present and their quantities or concentrations. Unlike other methods of elemental analysis, however, the sample is decomposed into its constituent…

A quantum-mechanical theory of the motion of electrons in solids. The band theory of solids' name comes from the fact that it predicts certain restricted ranges, or bands, for the energies of electrons in solids. In a solid, the energy level of an…

That portion of a fluid flow near a solid surface where shear stresses are significant and the inviscid-flow assumption, in which viscous-shear and normal stresses are negligible, may not be used. In physics broadly and fluid mechanics specifically,…

Any of the cells within a tumor that possess the capacity to self-renew and cause the heterogeneous lineages of cancerous cells that comprise the tumor. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) typically represent a small percentage of all cells in a tumor (rarely…

A poisonous colorless, odorless, tasteless gas (CO), resulting from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. Carbon monoxide (Fig. 1) is an indoor hazard causing hundreds of deaths annually, and it is one of the six major air…

Any clouding or opacity of the crystalline lens of the eye. Loss of the transparency of the lens (see illustration) prevents the normal passage of light onto the light-sensitive retina at the back of the eye and thus a loss of visual ability.…

Cameras in mobile phones or smartphones that can capture images and videos.The cellphone, the world’s favorite must-have gadget, has been with us for nearly a half-century, while experiencing continuous and often phenomenal improvements. Much of the…

An apparent outward force on a particle rotating about an axis which, by Newton's third law, is equal and opposite to the centripetal force. In classical mechanics, a particle that is rotating about an axis experiences an apparent outward…

Light emitted by a high-speed charged particle when the particle passes through a transparent, nonconducting, solid material at a speed greater than the speed of light in the material. The emission of Cerenkov radiation—also spelled Cherenkov—is…

The attractive force that holds atoms or ions together. Chemical bonds are very strong. To break one bond in each molecule in a mole of material typically requires an energy of many tens of kilocalories.It is convenient to classify chemical bonding…

The administration of chemical substances for the treatment of disease, especially cancer, or for the prevention of aberrant growth of cells or tissues (neoplasms). In general, chemotherapy is the use of chemicals to treat any disease, but the term…

A chemical element, Cl, atomic number 17 and atomic weight 35.453. Chlorine exists as a greenish-yellow gas at ordinary temperatures and pressures (see illustration). It is second in reactivity only to fluorine among the halogen elements, and hence…

A branch of computer science that deals with the theory and techniques of computer-generated images. Computers produce images by analyzing a collection of dots, or pixels (picture elements). Computer graphics is used to enhance the transfer and…

The extraction and refining of copper (Cu) from its ores. About 18 million metric tons per year of copper metal is produced from the mining and processing of copper ores, typically containing only about 1% Cu. About 80% of the world's primary copper…

The basic quantitative law of electrostatics that quantifies the physical force that exists between two electrically charged points. For electrostatics, Coulomb's law states that the direct force F of point charge q1 on point charge q2, when the…

A genome-engineering technique that allows precise targeting of specific stretches of genetic code and editing of DNA at designated locations. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has been used as a general tool to engineer the genomes of many different…

The capture, processing, transmission, and storage of images in electronic form. Digital photography differs from film photography in that images are captured and recorded as electronic files rather than as recognizable images on a light-sensitive…

The interaction of the behavior and ecology of hosts with the biology of pathogens as relating to the impact of diseases on populations. Although human diseases have been studied from an ecological perspective for centuries, diseases in plant and…

A radar system used to measure the relative velocity of targets and their position. The operation of these systems is based on the fact that the Doppler frequency shift in the target echo is proportional to the radial component of target velocity.…

The spinning of the Earth upon its planetary axis and movement of the Earth around the Sun. While appearing constant, the Earth's rate of rotation, where one complete rotation is measured as a day, and the rate of the Earth orbital motion around the…

A general term referring to a system or part of a system of conducting parts and their interconnections through which electric currents are intended to flow. A circuit is made up of a voltage source along with active and passive elements, as well as…

The measure of the opposition that an electrical circuit presents to the passage of a current when a voltage is applied. In quantitative terms, electrical impedance is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an alternating-current (ac)…

The ability of a material to resist or allow the flow of electrical current. Material properties largely determine the resistance and conductance—quantified by electrical resistivity and conductivity—of a given object, such as a circuit or…

The measures of a material's opposition to the flow of electricity and a material's ability to conduct electricity, respectively. Resistivity quantifies resistance, which is a material's opposition to the flow of electrons (an electric current or…

A range of physical phenomena that involve electric charges, their motions, and their effects. In conventional usage, the term “electricity” often refers to the energy that powers lighting, appliances, and other electronic devices in homes,…

The process in which an electron, which has been excited from the valence band to the conduction band of a semiconductor, falls back into an empty state in the valence band, which is known as a hole. When atoms come together to form a crystal, the…

One of the two places in the sky where the ecliptic crosses the celestial equator, or one of the two times of the year when the Sun crosses these points. The ecliptic is the great circle across the sky that marks the mean path of the Sun; the…

An interdisciplinary science area that is concerned with modeling aspects of natural evolution in order to solve real-world problems of optimization. Living organisms, as well as those that are long extinct, demonstrate optimized complex behavior at…

Planets beyond our solar system. For millennia, humankind has known about most of the major planets in our solar system because these worlds are visible to the naked eye. Exoplanets, however, were not indisputably known until 1995, when astronomers…

The branch of physics and engineering science concerned with the relation between the forces acting on fluids (liquids and gases), the motions of fluids, and the forces caused by fluids on their surroundings. Fluid mechanics is comprised of two…

In thermodynamics, the amount of useful work that can be extracted from a closed thermodynamic system. The Helmholtz free energy applies to a process that takes place at a constant temperature T (isothermal process). The Gibbs free energy applies to…

A plant that has altered genetic material (DNA) through recombinant DNA (rDNA) manipulation. Genetic engineering of plants allows for very specific genetic changes to be made to a plant's deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), as opposed to the random…

A commercially grown plant that has altered genetic material through artificial recombinant manipulation. Genetic modification is the latest scientific tool for developing improved crop varieties. Such genetically modified (GM) crops can help to…

A biological organism whose genetic material has been manipulated artificially through genetic or genomic editing techniques. In contrast to the long history of artificial selection (domestication), in which humans selectively breed organisms to…

A space-traversing unmanned vehicle which contains the means for controlling its flight path and that delivers an explosive warhead with high accuracy. Various kinds of missiles are guided in the sense that they can aerodynamically adjust after…

Pathologies or aberrations in structure or function of blood cells or the blood-clotting mechanism. Hematologic disorders affect the blood and blood-forming organs. Although many diseases and abnormal conditions may be reflected by the blood and its…

A vacant electron energy state near the top of an energy band in a solid. A hole, or more formally an electron hole, represents the absence of an electron where one could exist as part of an atom or within a crystal structure (an atomic lattice)…

An applied science and technology concerned with the mechanical properties and practical uses of liquids. The physical description of fluids in motion is based upon the conservation laws of mass, momentum, and energy. The mathematical statement of…

The process of tissue death (necrosis) resulting from a failure of blood supply and lack of oxygen (anoxia) reaching the tissue's cells. The usual cause of infarction is occlusion (blockage or closing) of an artery by a thrombus (blood clot; see…

The entrance, growth, and multiplication of a microorganism or pathogen in the body of a host. Infection may or may not result in the establishment of a disease process, depending on many variables including the pathogen involved, the health of the…

One of the three fundamental particles that transmit the weak force. The three intermediate vector bosons are known as the W+, W− , and Z0 particles or bosons. were discovered in 1983 in very high energy proton-antiproton collisions. It is through…

Any scientific law in which a physical quantity varies with distance from a source inversely as the square of that distance. When energy is being radiated by a point source (see illustration), an inverse-square law holds, provided the space between…

A space telescope mission dedicated to detecting exoplanets. The tenth mission launched under the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Discovery Program, Kepler was the agency’s first mission dedicated to the search for planets…

Fundamental laws dealing with electric currents at junctions and voltages around any loop within a network. Also known as Kirchhoff's circuit laws, the laws were first described by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff in 1845. The laws are divided into…

A salt or ester of lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH). In lactates, the acidic hydrogen of the carboxyl group has been replaced by a metal or an organic radical. Lactates are optically active, with a chiral center at carbon 2. The two optical isomers of a…

A transparent object that uses refraction in order to alter the light that passes through the object. In general, when a ray of light crosses the interface between two different transparent materials, the ray experiences a bending of its path. This…

The spectrum of a beam of light when only a few isolated colors are present. A beam of light (technically, a beam of electromagnetic radiation) typically contains a mixture of pure colors. The particular pure colors that are present in the beam…

A disease caused by members of the protozoan genus Plasmodium (a widespread group of protists that parasitize the human liver and red blood cells) and transmitted by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. Malaria is a serious mosquito-borne…

The process of exploring the deep seabed and recovering minerals from seawater and from deposits on and under the seabed. While the world's demand for mineral commodities is increasing at a rapid rate, most of the developed countries have been…

The planet fourth outward from the Sun and the planet most like Earth in terms of geology, climate, and suitability for life. Mars is nicknamed the "Red Planet" for its reddish hue (Fig. 1). Besides Earth, Mars is the most-studied world in the solar…

An analytical technique for identification of chemical structures, determination of mixtures, and quantitative elemental analysis by measuring the mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio of ions produced when a sample is ionized. Determination of organic and…

A procedure used to remove toxins, fluids, and other substances from the body when the kidneys are unable to handle this removal naturally. In the medical field, medical dialysis is simply referred to as dialysis. The removal of toxins, fluids, and…

A device that is capable of converting chemical energy into electrical energy with the use of whole bacterial cells as the catalyst. Fuels that are produced biologically are known as biofuels. Biofuel cells convert chemical energy from organic…

An autoimmune disease resulting from an abnormality in neuromuscular transmission, characterized by a fluctuating degree of muscle weakness. Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder (see illustration) characterized by varying…

The relationship stating that the magnitude of the electrical current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit's resistance. One of the simplest and most intuitive electrical laws, Ohm's…

A naturally occurring geologic body that may contain one or more metals. The metals may be present as native elements, or, more commonly, as oxides, sulfides, sulfates, silicates, or other compounds. The term ore is often used loosely to include…

A chemical element, Os, atomic number 76, atomic weight 190.2. Osmium is a hard white metal of rare natural occurrence, and is usually found in nature alloyed with other platinum metals. Metal Periodic table Platinum The periodic table of the…

A two-component reaction involving the loss of electrons (oxidation) by one chemical species and the gain of electrons (reduction) by another; also known as a redox reaction. Both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously and in equivalent…

Substances applied to other materials to change the surface properties, such as color, wear, and chemical or scratch resistance, without changing the bulk properties. The terms paint and coatings often are used interchangeably. However, it has…

An electric circuit in which the elements, branches (elements in series), or components are connected between two points, with one of the two ends of each component connected to each point. The illustration shows a simple parallel circuit. In more…

A progressive degenerative disorder of the nervous system belonging to a group of conditions called motor system disorders. Parkinson's disease—more specifically known as idiopathic Parkinson's disease to distinguish it from the four Parkinson-plus…

A slow change in the direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth as well as a very small change in the orientation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. As a consequence of the precession of equinoxes, both the celestial equator (the projection of…

Computation that encodes data in quantum objects to later process that data using operations based on the concepts and principles of quantum mechanics. Quantum objects used in quantum computation include the nuclei of atoms, ions in a crystal,…

The study of chemical changes resulting from the absorption of high-energy ionizing radiation. Such radiation includes alpha particles, electrons, gamma rays, fission fragments, protons, deuterons, helium nuclei, and heavier charged projectiles.…

In medicine and health sciences, a value expected for an individual whose state of health is known and well described, and the interval of values broadly expected for a population, respectively. Results of clinical laboratory tests and other…

A general theory of physics, primarily conceived by German-born U.S. theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, which involves a profound analysis of time and space, leading to a generalization of physical laws with far-reaching implications in…

The second largest planet in the solar system and the sixth in order of distance from the Sun. The outermost planet known prior to 1781 CE, Saturn is surrounded by a system of rings far more extensive than any other in the solar system (Fig. 1), as…

A solid crystalline material whose electrical conductivity is intermediate between that of a metal and an insulator. Semiconductors exhibit conduction properties that may be temperature-dependent, permitting their use as thermistors…

A clinical condition caused by widespread impairment of blood flow resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen to the body's tissues and organs. Shock is a response to hypoperfusion, which is the inadequate circulation of blood throughout the body.…

The evolving internet technologies for content sharing and collaborating among communities of online users. Since the advent of the Web 2.0—the more dynamic and interactive second generation of the World Wide Web—the term social media has become…

The penetration by humans into the reaches of the universe above Earth's atmosphere through the use of crewed vehicles. Human space flight poses significant challenges as an enterprise, given the technical rigors and costs associated with achieving…

The theory that explains the three fundamental interactions of elementary particle physics—the strong interaction responsible for nuclear forces, the weak interaction responsible for radioactive decay, and the electromagnetic interaction—in terms of…

The branch of mechanics that describes bodies which are acted upon by balanced forces and torques so that the bodies remain at rest or in uniform motion. Statics includes point particles, rigid bodies, fluids, and deformable solids in general.…

The theory of circuits made up of ideal digital devices. Included in switching theory are the theories of circuits and networks for telephone switching, digital computing, digital control, and data processing. Computer Electrical circuit Electronic…

A management technology involving the interactions of science, an organization, and its environment as well as the information and knowledge that support each. The purpose of systems engineering is to support organizations that desire improved…

A rare genetic disorder in which there is a deficiency of hexosaminidase A (a lysosomal enzyme that hydrolyzes GM2 gangliosides). Tay-Sachs disease is a severe and progressive neurodegenerative disease. Because of the deficiency of hexosaminidase A…

An instrument used to collect, measure, or analyze electromagnetic or other radiation from distant objects. A telescope overcomes the limitations of the human vision by increasing the ability to see faint objects and discern fine details. In…

The description of natural phenomena in mathematical form. As a branch of physics, theoretical physics involves the construction of models and abstractions (see illustration) to both explain and predict nature. Theoretical physics fundamentally…

The process of forming a thrombus, which is a solid mass or plug in the living heart or vessels composed of the constituents of the blood. Thrombosis usually occurs in a diseased blood vessel, as a result of arteriosclerosis. The consequences of…

One of the elements of atomic numbers 21–31, 39–49, and 71–81. The symbols of these elements, along with their atomic numbers and valence-shell electronic configurations, are given in Fig. 1. The elements are arranged in the order in which they…

An aqueous solution of organic and inorganic substances—mostly waste products of metabolism—that collects in the kidneys and is removed from the body primarily through the urinary bladder and urinary tract. Urine is a liquid waste produced by the…

A branch of engineering concerned with the development of sources of supply, transmission, distribution, and treatment of water. The term is used most frequently for municipal water works, but applies also to water systems for industry, irrigation,…

A sequence of physical and chemical processes used to transform various water sources into water that is safe for human consumption and is aesthetically pleasing. Water treatment is designed to remove particulate matter, chemicals, and…

The traveling pattern of motion exhibited by a wave, combining both oscillatory motion and forward motion. Examples of wave motion include the motion of ocean waves, light waves (Fig. 1), sound waves, and waves on a string. The oscillatory motion…

An extensively used electrical network of four resistances R1–4 (or impedances Z1–4) if alternating currents are involved. A Wheatstone bridge network (see Fig. 1), was first described by British physicist and mathematician Samuel Hunter Christie in…

A chemical obtained from wood. Woody plants comprise the greatest part of the organic materials produced by photosynthesis on a renewable basis. Replacement of fossil hydrocarbons, from which most organic chemicals are derived, is possible in many…

The scattering of x-rays by matter with accompanying variation in intensity for specific directions (or wavelengths) due to interference effects. X-ray diffraction is a powerful and readily available method for determining atomic arrangements in…

Diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans. Zoonoses (the singular form is zoonosis) are also termed zoonotic diseases. They are infectious diseases passed from animals (Fig. 1) to humans. Zoonotic agents are found among all major…

A process of making physical objects directly from digital models, usually layer by layer; also known as additive manufacturing (AM). 3D printing has been hailed by many as the technology that will revolutionize how we live. As information…

A plant, Musa textilis, of the banana family that is valuable for its hard fiber (also known as Manila hemp). Abaca (Musa textilis) is a flowering plant native to the Philippines and Borneo. Taxonomically, it is assigned to the order Zingiberales.…

An increase in the expansion rate of the universe, attributed to dark energy. In 1998, astronomers presented evidence that the universe's expansion is not slowing down, as would be expected due to the gravity from the abundances of matter strewn…