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On July 20, 1969, the bulkily space-suited figure of astronaut Neil Armstrong descended the ladder of Apollo 11’s lunar lander, planted his boot in the Moon's gray dust, and declared: "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."…

The science of optical systems in which a controllable optical element, usually a deformable mirror, is used to optimize the performance of the system, for example, to maintain a sharply focused image in the presence of wavefront aberrations. A…

The efficiency of a surface in reflecting light. White surfaces have albedos close to 1; black surfaces have albedos close to 0. Because this efficiency can vary with the direction to the light source, the direction to the observer, and the color…

A book that contains astronomical or meteorological data arranged according to days, weeks, and months of a given year and may also include diverse information of a nonastronomical character. This article is restricted to astronomical and…

A prominently located constellation in the northern sky (see illustration), named for the daughter of Cassiopeia in Greek mythology: When Cassiopeia bragged that her daughter Andromeda was more beautiful than Poseidon's daughters, the Nereids,…

The giant spiral galaxy closest to Earth. The Andromeda Galaxy is seen in the constellation of Andromeda, which is visible from Earth in the autumn skies. The galaxy is also known as M31 and NGC 224, based on its entries in two widely used catalogs.…

α Scorpii, a cool supergiant star of spectral type M1Ib, whose red color stands out in the midsummer sky. With an effective temperature of approximately 6000°F (3600 K), Antares resembles Betelgeuse, the brightest of the red supergiants, and would…

In astronomy, the two points in an elliptical orbit that are closest to, and farthest from, the primary body about which the secondary revolves. In the orbit of a planet or comet about the Sun, the apsides are, respectively, perihelion and aphelion.…

The Water Bearer, in Greek mythology, is a zodiacal constellation, meaning that the path of the Sun and planets passes through it. (The Sun actually passes through 13 of the modern constellations each year, not the traditional 12.) It is almost…

The brightest star in the northern sky, apparent magnitude −0.05, also known as α Boötis. It is a yellow giant star of spectral type K1.5, one of the nearest giants to the Earth at a distance of 11.25 parsecs (2.16 × 1014 mi or 3.47 × 1014 km).…

The Ram, a northern zodiacal constellation, meaning that the path of the Sun and planets passes through it (see illustration). In Greek mythology, the golden fleece of this ram was pursued by Jason and the Argonauts, whose ship is memorialized in…

One of the many thousands of small planets (minor planets) revolving around the Sun, mainly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The presence of a gap in J. A. Bode's empirical law of planetary spacings motivated a search for the missing planet.…

The scientific discipline that studies the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary science integrating contributions from biology, geology, astronomy, paleontology, and planetary…

That part of astronomy dealing with the position, distance, and motion of celestial objects, including solar system objects, stars, radio sources, and galaxies. New astrometry Astrometry has changed since the 1980s. Very long baseline interferometry…

Books, CD-ROMs, or computer-accessible sets showing stars, constellations, or other astronomical phenomena and their locations in the sky. Astronomical atlases provide two-dimensional views of the distributions of objects.The first sets of…

Lists or enumerations of astronomical data relevant to astronomy, navigation, geodesy, and space science applications. Astronomical catalogs vary a great deal in form and content depending upon the type of the data and the objects to which they are…

Schemes for locating astronomical objects in space. To an observer on the Earth's surface, the stars of the night sky appear to be placed upon a spherical shell of infinite radius with the observer at the center. Celestial objects appear to move…

The production of a permanent two-dimensional record of a scene of interest to astronomy. In direct imaging, the scene is a section of the sky optically imaged with a telescope. In other types of imaging, the scene is the output of an instrument,…

A telescope or telescopes, their protective enclosures (if any), support and headquarters buildings, and the staff of astronomers, engineers, technicians, and other support personnel. The telescopes can be optical or infrared (reflecting or…

The use of spectroscopy (the analysis of light as a function of wavelength) as a tool for obtaining observational data on the chemical compositions, physical conditions, and radial velocities of astronomical objects. Astronomical applications of…

A telescope adapted to the observation of the passage, or transit, of an astronomical object across the meridian of the observer. The astronomical transit instrument is the classic instrument of positional astronomy, which is the study of the…

The basic unit of length in the solar system. The astronomical unit (AU) is also used to a limited extent for interstellar distances through the definition of the parsec (1 pc = 206,265 AU). It is nearly equal to the mean distance a between the…

A device that uses an internal resonance frequency of atoms (or molecules) to measure the passage of time. The terms atomic clock and atomic frequency standard are often used interchangeably. A frequency standard generates pulses at regular…

Time that is based on physics, specifically on a unit of duration that corresponds to a defined number of periods of radiation of a specific atomic transition of a chosen isotope. The fundamental unit of atomic time is the International System…

A cool and highly luminous star, prominently located in the right shoulder of the constellation Orion and noticeably red in color. Betelgeuse, or α Orionis, is a supergiant star about 130 parsecs (430 light-years) from the Sun. Its spectral type of…

Systems composed of two almost equal-size asteroids orbiting around their center of mass, or one or more satellites revolving around a larger primary body. The discovery of binary and multiple asteroids will aid the work of observers and theorists…

Two stars held together by their mutual gravitational attraction in a permanent (or long-term) association. The stellar universe is hierarchical. Stars exist singly and in binary pairs, multiple systems, and clusters. On large scales, roughly 105…

A region of spacetime exerting a gravitational field so strong that neither matter nor radiation can escape. Black holes are extreme cosmic objects predicted by German-born U.S. physicist Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. Within a…

Researchers recently discovered a black hole with a mass estimated at 3.3 times the mass of the Sun, which is significantly less than the lowest-mass black holes previously detected with approximately 5 times the Sun's mass. The new finding opens…

The first interplanetary orbiter and lander mission dedicated to the study of Saturn and its moons. A collaborative mission by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), ESA (European Space Agency), and ISA (Italian Space Agency), the…

The application of dynamical theory to the motion of celestial bodies, including planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and stars, influenced primarily by the force of gravity. Celestial mechanics has enabled humankind to describe with great precision…

The largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. As an astronomical body, Ceres contains sufficient mass for gravitation to have pulled it into a round shape, in contrast to lumpy, irregularly shaped asteroids. This characteristic…