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A plant, Musa textilis, of the banana family that is valuable for its hard fiber (also known as Manila hemp) and native to Borneo and the Philippines. Abaca is one of the strongest of the hard fibers. Commercially, it is known as Manila hemp. The…

Habituation to a specific practice, such as drinking alcoholic beverages or using drugs (for example, heroin, cocaine, or amphetamines), and disorders characterized by the chronic use of a drug, alcohol, or similar substance. Addiction and addictive…

One of the four fundamental operations of arithmetic and algebra. The symbol + of addition is thought to be a ligature for “et,” used in a German manuscript of 1456 to denote addition. Its first printed appearance is in Johann Widman's Behennede und…

Aeronomy concentrates on the regions above the tropopause or upper part of the atmosphere. The region of the atmosphere below the tropopause is the site of most of the weather phenomena that so directly affect all life on the planet; this region has…

A variety of chalcedonic quartz that is distinguished by the presence of color banding in curved or irregular patterns (Fig. 1). Most agate used for ornamental purposes is composed of two or more tones or intensities of brownish-red, often…

Behavior that is intended to threaten or inflict physical injury or emotional harm on another person or organism. Aggression is a type of behavior (physical or verbal, or both) displayed by an individual who aims or is motivated to harm another…

Any disorder of recognition. Agnosias were named originally by Sigmund Freud in 1891 to denote disturbances in the ability to recognize and name objects. Usually the misrecognition involves one sensory modality, with primary sensation in that…

Aircraft specifically designed or adapted from a general utility airframe for use in agriculture and forestry and for control of insect vectors of human, animal, and plant diseases. Agricultural aircraft (Fig. 1) have become an indispensable tool…

A discipline concerned with solving the engineering problems of providing food and fiber for the people of the world. These problems include designing agricultural machinery to work the soil and harvest the crops, as well as developing water…

The science that deals with the selection, breeding, nutrition, and management of domestic animals for economical production of meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides, and other animal products. The broad field of agricultural science focuses on two realms:…

The techniques and methods used in plowing, harrowing, planting, tilling, harvesting, drying, storing, and processing of agricultural crops. Agricultural soil and crop practices seek to keep the quality and fertility of soils at high levels so as to…

A model for the functioning of an agricultural system, with all inputs and outputs. An ecosystem may be as small as a set of microbial interactions that take place on the surface of roots, or as large as the globe. An agroecosystem may be at the…

The science and study of crops and soils. Agronomy is the umbrella term for a number of technical research and teaching activities (see illustration): crop physiology and management, soil science, plant breeding, and weed management frequently are…

A sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar mineral whose composition extends over the range Ab100An0 to Ab90An10, where Ab (= albite) is NaAlSi3O8 and An (= anorthite) is CaAl2Si2O8 (see illustration). Albite occurs in crustal igneous rocks as a major…

The repeated and/or excessive use of alcohol (ethanol) that continues despite negative physical, psychiatric, or social consequences. Alcoholism is characterized by consuming alcohol more often, in larger amounts, or over longer periods than…

Any of the deciduous shrubs and trees of the genus Alnus in the birch family (Betulaceae). There are approximately 30 species of alder, with 10 in the United States. Alders are widespread in cool north temperate regions and are also found southward…

The world's most valuable forage legume, Medicago sativa, also known as lucerne, and less often as purple medic, medica, snail clover, median herb, Burgundy hay or clover, and Chilean clover. Alfalfa is often referred to as the queen of forages. It…

The branch of mathematics dealing with the solution of equations. These equations involve unknowns, or variables, along with fixed numbers from a specified system (Fig. 1). The origins of algebra were based on the need to develop equations that…

The study of zero sets of polynomial equations. Examples are the parabola y − x2 = 0, thought of as sitting in the (x, y)-plane, and the locus of all points (t, t2, t3, t4), which is defined by Eqs. (1), 1 in the coordinate space with coordinates w,…

Light emissions in the upper atmosphere from elemental lithium, potassium, and especially sodium. These alkali metals are present in the upper atmosphere at altitudes from about 50 to 62 mi (80 to 100 km) and are very efficient in resonant…

The dried, unripe fruits (berries) of a small, tropical, evergreen tree, Pimenta dioica (P. officinalis), of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). Allspice (see illustration), which is also known as Jamaica pepper, is a native of the West Indies and parts…

Prunus dulcis (also known as Prunus amygdalus or Amygdalus communis), a small deciduous tree of the order Rosales that is closely related to the peach and other stone fruit trees, and grown widely for its ellipsoidal edible seeds. The fruit of the…

Vicugna pacos, a member of the camel family (Camelidae), which has been domesticated for more than 2000 years and is economically important for its long, fine wool. The alpaca (Vicugna pacos; formerly, Lama pacos) [see illustration] belongs to the…

A mineral of composition KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6. Alunite occurs in white to gray rhombohedral crystals or in fine-grained, compact masses. It has a hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 2.6–2.8.Alunite is produced by sulfurous vapors on acid volcanic…

A disease of the nervous system characterized by a progressive dementia that leads to profound impairment in cognition and behavior. Dementia occurs in a number of brain diseases where the impairment in cognitive abilities represents a decline from…

An annual plant (seldom perennial) of the genus Amaranthus (family Amaranthaceae) that is distributed worldwide in warm and humid regions. Amaranth plants are botanically distinguished by their small chaffy flowers (see illustration), which are…

Most commonly, a generic name for all fossil resins, although it has been restricted by some to refer only to succinite, the mineralogical species of fossil resin that includes most of the Baltic Coast deposits. Resins generally are complex mixtures…

The transparent purple to violet variety of the mineral quartz. Although quartz is perhaps the commonest gem mineral known, amethyst is rare in the deep colors that characterize fine quality. Amethyst is usually colored unevenly and is often heated…

Determination of the relative or absolute age of materials or objects by measurement of the degree of racemization of the amino acids present. With the exception of glycine, the amino acids found in proteins can exist in two isomeric forms called d-…

A significant but relatively selective inability to remember. Amnesia can be characterized along two dimensions with respect to its onset: an inability to remember events that occurred after the onset of amnesia is referred to as anterograde…

A mineral with a framework structure in which all the aluminosilicate tetrahedral vertices are linked, thus allying it to the feldspars, feldspathoids, and zeolites. The structure is cubic, space group Ia3d, a = 1.371 mm. Its formula is…

Total variation in experimental data is partitioned into components assignable to specific sources by the analysis of variance. This statistical technique is applicable to data for which (1) effects of sources are additive, (2) uncontrolled or…

A branch of mathematics in which algebra is applied to the study of geometry. Because algebraic methods were first systematically applied to geometry in 1637 by the French philosopher-mathematician René Descartes, the subject is also called…

A framework for solving a problem. The analytic hierarchy process is a systematic procedure for representing the elements of any problem. It organizes the basic rationality by breaking down a problem into its smaller constituents and then calls for…

A nesosilicate mineral, composition Al2SiO5, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It occurs commonly in large, nearly square prismatic crystals. The variety chiastolite has inclusions of dark-colored carbonaceous material arranged in a regular…

A plagioclase feldspar with composition Ab70An30 to Ab50An50 (Ab = NaAlSi3O8; An = CaAl2Si2O8). Andesine occurs primarily in igneous rocks, often in a glassy matrix as small, chemically zoned, lathlike crystals known as microlites. The rock types…

A typical volcanic rock erupted from a volcano associated with convergent plate boundaries. The process of subduction, which defines convergent plate boundaries, results in the sinking of oceanic lithosphere beneath either oceanic lithosphere or…

A mineral with the chemical composition PbSO4. Anglesite occurs in white or gray, orthorhombic, tabular or prismatic crystals or compact masses (see illustration). It is a common secondary mineral, usually formed by the oxidation of galena. Fracture…

A mineral with the chemical composition CaSO4. Anhydrite occurs commonly in white and grayish granular masses, rarely in large, orthorhombic crystals (see illustration). Fracture is uneven and luster is pearly to vitreous. Hardness is 3–3.5 on Mohs…

The application of genetic principles for improving heredity for economically important traits in domestic animals. The science of animal breeding is based on fundamental genetic concepts. Through controlled mating and selection, which can involve…

The use of live nonhuman animals for scientific research and experimentation. Animal testing has been a cornerstone of biomedical research, having contributed greatly to the understanding of human biology, to the unraveling of the complex underlying…

An annual herb, Pimpinella anisum (family Apiaceae), whose fruit is used to provide food flavoring and to make a distilled oil. Anise is one of the earliest aromatics mentioned in literature. The anise plant (see illustration) is an annual herb that…

The carbonate mineral Ca(Fe,Mg)(CO3)2, also commonly containing some manganese. The mineral has hexagonal (rhombohedral) symmetry (see illustration) and has the cation-ordered structure of dolomite. The name is applied only to those species in which…

The calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar with composition Ab0An100 to Ab10An90 (Ab = NaAlSi3O8; An = CaAl2Si2O8), occurring in olivine-rich igneous rocks and rare volcanic ejecta (for example, at Mount Vesuvius, Italy, and Miyakejima, Japan). Hardness…

The name usually given to alkali feldspars which have a chemical composition ranging from Or40Ab60 to Or10Ab90± up to approximately 20 mole % An (Or, Ab, An = KAlSi3O8, NaAlSi3O8, CaAl2Si2O8) and which deviate in one way or another from monoclinic…

A rock composed of 90 vol % or more of plagioclase feldspar. Strictly, the rock is composed entirely of crystals discernible with the eye, but some finely crystalline examples from the Moon have been called anorthosite or anorthositic breccia. Two…

Oxygen-depleted regions in marine environments. The dynamic steady state between oxygen supply and consumption determines the oxygen concentration. In regions where the rate of consumption equals or exceeds the rate of supply, seawater becomes…

The Antarctic Circle is an imaginary line that delimits the northern boundary of Antarctica. It is a distinctive parallel of latitude at approximately 66°30′ south. Thus it is located about 4590 mi (7345 km) south of the Equator and about 1630 mi…

The Antarctic Ocean, sometimes called the Southern Ocean, is the watery belt surrounding Antarctica. It includes the great polar embayments of the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea, and the deep circumpolar belt of ocean between 50 and 60°S and the southern…

A magnesium-rich orthorhombic amphibole with perfect {210} cleavage and a color which varies from white to various shades of green and brown. It is a comparatively rare metamorphic mineral which occurs as slender prismatic needles, in fibrous…