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from article Manganese
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from article Crystal growth
Schematic representation of cross section of crystal at three stages of regular growth.
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from article Crystal growth
A model of a crystal surface showing the inequivalent binding sites at which the atoms labeled A and B are located. (General Electric Co.)
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from article Crystal growth
A dendrite. Growth direction is upward for primary protuberances; side branches grow perpendicularly; side branches on the side branches are also seen growing perpendicularly. (After W. Kurz and D. J. Fisher, Fundamentals of Solidification, Trans…
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from article Crystal growth
Hypothetical binary system AB having simple compound formation. (a) Phase diagram. (b) Corresponding partial pressure curves. The extent of the stoichiometry range is greatly exaggerated for illustration.
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from article Crystal growth
Czochralski crystal growth and temperature distribution.
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from article Crystal growth
Vertical Bridgman crystal and temperature distribution.
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from article Crystal growth
An isotherm in the aluminum-gallium-arsenic (Al-Ga-As) ternary phase diagram. Each corner represents a pure element and each point within the diagram a unique composition, all at a given temperature. Each composition on the liquidus is in…
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from article Crystal growth
Molecular-beam epitaxy apparatus.
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from article Crystal growth
Cross section of a gallium arsenide–aluminum arsenide (GaAs–AlAs) single crystal with individual gallium arsenide and aluminum arsenide layers each about 5 × 10−10 m thick.
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from article Oscillatory reaction
Oscillatory behavior in a sulfuric acid medium containing potassium bromate, malonic acid, and cerous nitrate. The upper curve is the potential (in unspecified units) of a tungsten electrode and is related to the concentration ratio of…
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from article Oscillatory reaction
Rotating spiral bands of oxidation in a thin layer of solution containing the same reagents as in Fig. 1 except that the redox indicator ferrous phenanthroline has been substituted for cerous ion. (Courtesy of Prof. A. T. Winfree, University of…
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from article Oscillatory reaction
Layers of crystallization from an initially uniform magma in the Skaergaard Intrusion in Greenland. (From A. R. McBirney and R. M. Noyes, Crystallization and layering of the Skaergaard Intrusion, J. Petrol., 20:487–554, 1979)
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from article Food manufacturing
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from article Food manufacturing
Average composition of the United States diet dry weight per capita per day. Prior sanctioned substances were specifically approved by FDA or USDA for use in food prior to the passage of the Food Additives Amendment in 1958.
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from article Food manufacturing
Rank ordering of food ingredients by per capita annual disappearance.
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from article Food manufacturing
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from article Food manufacturing
Flow chart of the fiber-spinning technique used to prepare food analogs. (After N. R. Lockmiller, Increased utilization of protein in foods, Cereal Sci. Today, 18(3):77–81, 1973)
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from article Food manufacturing
Typical high-temperature extrusion process for production of a meat or seafood analog. (After O. B. Smith, in L. D. Hill, ed., Textured Vegetable Proteins, World Soybean Research, Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1976)
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from article Food manufacturing
Front view diagram of a horizontal dough mixer.
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from article Food manufacturing
Small integrated bread make-up system. A mass of bread dough is placed in the hopper of the divider (right) which cuts it into pieces of uniform weight. The rounder (center foreground) receives the rough pieces from the divider, forms them into…
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from article Food manufacturing
Tunnel oven. Loaf-size dough pieces enter the oven at left background and are carried through the baking chamber on a continuous metal belt which serves as the hearth. The baked loaves exit at right foreground. Ordinary pan bread would require sets…
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from article Food manufacturing
Schematic for production of shredded wheat biscuits. (After G. A. Leveille and M. A. Uebersax, Fundamentals of food science for the dietician: Wheat products, dietetic currents, vol. 7(1), pp. 1–8, Ross Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio, January–February…
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from article Food manufacturing
Small-scale abrasive dehulling machine in (a) upright and (b) dumping positions. (Plant Biotechnology Institute, National Research Council of Canada, Saskatoon)
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from article Food manufacturing
Flow chart for the preparation of fish meal, condensed fish solubles, and fish oil from whole fish by using the wet process. (Zapata Haynie Corp.)
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from article Food manufacturing
Common market forms of fresh or frozen fish.
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from article Food manufacturing
Processing steps in the canning of tuna.
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from article Food manufacturing
Schematic sectional view of a fish flesh-separating machine to produce minced fish.
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from article Food manufacturing
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from article Food manufacturing
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from article Thermodynamic principles
An internal combustion engine, a kind of heat engine that performs work to propel a hot rod car. (Andre Kudyusov/Getty Images)
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from article Thermodynamic principles
The observation that the same work is done whatever the adiabatic path between two specified states of a system implies that each state has a characteristic property such that the difference in its values is equal to the adiabatic work required to…
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from article Thermodynamic principles
Representation of the statements of the second law of thermodynamics by (a) Lord Kelvin and (b) Rudolf Clausius. In each case, the law states that the device shown cannot operate as shown.
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from article Thermodynamic principles
Criterion for ability of a device to produce work. (a) This device cannot produce work because there is a decrease in entropy of the hot reservoir as energy leaves it as heat, but no compensating increase in entropy of the cold sink; overall,…
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from article Thermodynamic principles
Representation of the experimental determination of entropy. Measurements are made of the heat capacity, C, down to as low a temperature, T′, as possible, and C/T′ is plotted against T′. The area under the curve up to the temperature of interest, T,…
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from article Thermodynamic principles
Gibbs energy of a system. A spontaneous change (under conditions of constant temperature and pressure) corresponds to a decrease in Gibbs energy. This is a disguised form of the identification of the spontaneous direction of change with an increase…
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from article Thermodynamic principles
Simple phase diagram for a one-component system (C = 1) and its interpretation in terms of the phase rule. The lines (F = 1) show the conditions under which two phases (P = 2) are in mutual equilibrium; the triple point (F = 0) is the unique set of…
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from article Superposition principle
Superposition principle for a linear system (such as a driven harmonic oscillator). (a) Total force equals the sum of two forces, Fa and Fb. (b) Resulting total displacement is equal to the sum of displacements, xa and xb, due to each of the forces…
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from article Superposition principle
Superposition of two waves on the surface of water, or of two quantum wave functions. (a) Double-slit experiment. (b) Intensities, I1 and I2 (given by the square of the local amplitude of the wave, ψ1 or ψ2), when slits 1 and 2 are open, one at a…
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from article Sol-gel process
Flow chart showing the sol-gel methods used to prepare bulk glasses, thin films of glass or ceramics, and powders; the powders are then sintered to produce ceramics.
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from article Shadowgraph
Schematic of the shadowgraph method applied to reveal convection patterns in a fluid layer. A cross section of the apparatus perpendicular to the convection rolls is shown.
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from article Shadowgraph
Background-divided shadowgraph image of convection in high-pressure carbon dioxide gas. The convection rolls are in the form of a two-armed spiral lying within a set of concentric circular rolls. (From E. Bodenschatz et al., Transitions between…
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from article Atom laser
Principle of the radio-frequency output coupler of an atom laser. (a) Bose-Einstein condensate confined in an atom trap. (b) Tilting of the spins of the atoms by a short radio-frequency pulse. (c) Splitting of the cloud into a trapped cloud and an…
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from article Atom laser
Pulsed atom laser in operation, with pulses of coherent sodium atoms coupled out from a Bose-Einstein condensate that is confined in a magnetic trap.
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from article Crystal
Structure of a simple crystal. Spheres, representing atoms, are packed together into a cubic lattice. This crystal has 4-fold symmetry axes passing through the front face; after a 90° rotation the structure appears unchanged.
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from article Hepaticopsida
Jungermanniidae, the leafy liverworts. (a) Herberta, showing three ranks of equal bifid leaves. (b) Lepidozia, ventral aspect, showing reduced ventral leaves. (c) Leucole jeunea, ventral aspect, showing reduced ventral leaves and complicate dorsal…
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from article Hepaticopsida
Diagram of life cycle of the liverwort Marchantia, indicating stages at which chromosome changes occur. (After H. J. Fuller, The Plant World, rev. ed., Holt, 1951)
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from article Hepaticopsida
Transverse sections through the thallus of Marchantia. (a) Middle portion with scales and rhizoids on the underside. (b) Margin of the thallus more highly magnified. (After H. Kraemer, Applied and Economic Botany, 2d ed., Wiley, 1916)
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from article Hepaticopsida
Marchantia. (a) Example of male gametophyte (antheridial plant) (after H. J. Fuller and O. Tippo, College Botany, Holt, 1949). (b) Section through an antheridial receptacle (after W. J. Robbins and H. W. Rickett, Botany, 3d ed., Van Nostrand, 1939).
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from article Hepaticopsida
Marchantia. (a) Example of female gametophyte (archegonial plant) (after H. J. Fuller and O. Tippo, College Botany, Holt, 1949). (b) Section through an archegonial receptacle (after W. J. Robbins and H. W. Rickett, Botany, 3d ed., Van Nostrand,…
