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Food chains are limited by energy transfer. In this illustration, energy is transferred from the Sun to a plant (producer) to a primary consumer and to a secondary consumer. Energy is used by the producer and consumer organisms and is lost to the…

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from article Ecosystem

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from article Ecosystem

General model of the carbon cycle in ecosystems: (A) carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air; (B) carbon from decomposition; (C) carbon from fossil fuels; (D) natural events (for example, forest fires and volcanoes) release CO2 into the air. (Copyright ©…

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from article Biodiversity

Global biodiversity hotspots. There are more than 30 biodiversity hotspots located around the world. These areas have experienced severe habitat losses (at least 70%) as the result of human activities, hampering the work of conservationists in their…

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from article Biodiversity

A regional analysis of 25 oceanic regions shows that 92% of all known biodiversity falls into a dozen groups, of which crustaceans (for example, crabs, shrimps, and lobsters), mollusks (for example, snails, bivalves, squids, and octopus), and fish…

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from article Biodiversity

Ecosystem function (a) as a positive, linear function of biodiversity and (b) as a nonlinear, satiating function of biodiversity.

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from article Urodela

A typical member of the order Urodela: the longtail salamander (Eurycea longicauda). (Photo by Ryan Hagerty, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

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from article Urodela

World distribution of salamanders (order Urodela), indicated by areas of shaded blue color.

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from article Urodela

California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense). (Photo by John Cleckler, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

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from article Urodela

The two-toed amphiuma salamander (Amphiuma means). (Photo courtesy of the Southeast Ecological Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Gainesville, FL)

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from article Urodela

The northern red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber ruber). (Photo by Alicia Lafever, U.S. National Park Service)

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from article Environmental management

Environmental management seeks to provide solutions to the practical problems that humans encounter or create, including the production of garbage and waste. (Credit: Walter Zerla/Getty Images)

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from article Environmental management

Without proper environmental management, economic and industrial development often lead to environmental pollution, especially in urban environments. (Credit: Simon Alvinge/123RF)

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from article Marine ecology

Cross-sectional profile of (a) estuarine and nearshore and (b) coastal and open-ocean marine environments. The nearshore region, although not precisely defined, is generally within kilometers of the coastline. 1 m = 3.3 ft.

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from article Marine ecology

Salinity structure of the three general types of estuaries found throughout the world. (a) Strongly stratified system due to high surface freshwater inflow. (b) Moderated stratified system showing lines of equal salinity in parts per thousand. (c)…

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from article Marine ecology

Photosynthetically active radiation intensity at depth for various values of the attenuation coefficient (k). The intersection of the 1% light level (the limiting light intensity for photosynthesis) with the decay curves marks the depth limit for…

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from article Marine ecology

Photosynthesis–photosynthetically active radiation curves for two marine plants with fundamentally different light relations. The high-light plant, which has a higher Pmax but requires much more light, is typical of high-light environments such as…

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from article Swamp, marsh, and bog

Cross-sectional diagram representing the progressive filling by vegetation of a pit lake in recently glaciated terrain.

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from article Plant vulnerability to climate change

Subarctic tundra and vegetation of the Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska. As a result of climate change and the resultant poleward and upward shift of plant ranges, plants and their ecosystems may become particularly vulnerable. (Credit:…

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from article Plant vulnerability to climate change

Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) growing in Montana. As a result of warming temperatures, this type of grass could face decreased productivity, allowing forbs to increase and making the ecosystem less tolerant of drought and grazing. (Credit: Matt…

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from article Plant vulnerability to climate change

Modeled distribution of suitable climate space in Europe for stiff sedge (Carex bigelowii), which is an Arctic-Alpine plant: (a) during the period 1961–1990 (green color = suitable climate space during the 1961–1990 period); (b) climate model…

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from article Plant vulnerability to climate change

The endangered western prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera praeclara) is declining across much of its range in North America. (Credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

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from article Marine conservation

A marine conservation biologist surveying marine invertebrates in a Mediterranean marine protected area in the Gulf of Gökova, Turkey. (Credit: Images & Stories/Alamy Stock Photo)

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from article Marine conservation

Bleached Acropora coral in shallow water, French Polynesia. Warming climates have affected marine habitats, with numerous marine species being depleted, threatened, or endangered. (Credit: Seaphotoart/Alamy Stock Photo)

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from article Marine conservation

An oil slick off a beach along the South Devon coast of England. Restoration efforts undertaken by marine conservationists attempt to return compromised habitats to ecologically functional, more pristine conditions. (Credit: Richard Packwood/Getty…

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from article Social mammals

Meerkats (Suricata suricatta) are notable social mammals. Here, they are looking for danger outside of their den. (Credit: Alta Oosthuizen/Shutterstock)

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from article Social mammals

An adult female African lion (Panthera leo) nurses four cubs. The early ingestive behavior (nursing) of mammals has a high degree of social significance. (Credit: Glow Images)

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from article Social mammals

Mexican spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus) are primates that display many examples of social behavior and organization. (Credit: Oksana Kunka/123RF)

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from article Venus' flytrap

Dionaea muscipula (the Venus' flytrap) growing in a South Carolina nature preserve. Winged petioles and traps in various stages of the capture cycle are visible. The plant is surrounded by Sphagnum moss, which is a frequent community associate.…

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from article Venus' flytrap

Stages in the capture and digestion of a fly by the Venus' flytrap. A prey item is attracted to the trap margins by nectar (a). When a trigger hair on the inside leaf surface is twice stimulated (b), the trap closes rapidly (c). Complete closure is…

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from article Forest ecosystem

Forest in Moran State Park on Orcas Island, Washington. (Credit: Chris Willig)

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from article Forest ecosystem

Forest fire in No Name Creek area of Colorado. (Credit: Andrea Booher/FEMA)

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from article Forest ecosystem

Puma and cub in forest. (Credit: Grant Faint/Stockbyte/Getty Images)

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from article Forest ecosystem

Conceptual model of elemental cycling in a terrestial ecosystem, emphasizing the presence and activities of arthropod consumers. The indirect regulation of elemental movement by arthropods is indicated by the hourglass-shaped valves on these flows.…

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from article Forest ecosystem

The southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) is a destructive insect pest of coniferous forests in the southern United States. (Credit: U.S. Forest Service)

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from article Forest ecosystem

Belowground food web. (Credit: Elaine Ingham)

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from article Lichens

The ascolichen Teloschistes chrysophthalmus. (Credit: Jason Hollinger)

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from article Lichens

Cuplike lichens of the genus Cladonia. (Credit: Jacinta Lluch Valero)

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from article Dune vegetation

A coastal dune profile.

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from article Dune vegetation

American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata), which dominates coastal dunes along much of the Eastern seaboard of the United States and the Great Lakes. (Photo by Rob Routledge, Sault College, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada)

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